Respiratory and Circulatory systems Flashcards
a buildup of fluid between the layers of tissue that line the lungs and chest cavity.
pleural effusion
a collapsed lung. A ____ occurs when air leaks into the space between your lung and chest wall. This air pushes on the outside of your lung and makes it collapse
pneumothorax
utilises the contraction of several thoracic and abdominal muscles. These muscles act to decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity pushing the diaphragm further upwards into the thoracic cavity.
active inhalation
The typical exhalation caused by the relaxation of the diaphram
passive exhalation
The final part of breathing where oxygen moves from the lungs to the bloodstream
gas exchange
Alveoli are the site of gas exchange between the environment and the bloodstream. Oxygen moves from the alveoli to the capillaries, while carbon dioxide travels in the opposite direction.
What are located throughout the respiratory tract to help trap particulate matter and pathogens?
Cilliated cells and mucus
What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration? What is the byproduct of aeorobic respiration?
Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration, whereas CO2 is the byproduct
The blood buffer system involves what 3 substances?
Carbon dioxide interacting with carbonic acid and the bicarbonate ion
What’s the difference between the terms acidemia and alkalemia vs acidosis and alkalosis
The suffix -emia refers to blood that is too acidic or basic, while the suffix -osis refers to the disease processes that result in acidemia or alkalemia
recognize the differences in these suffices for the MCAT!
When thinking about the blood buffer system and Le Chatlier’s principle, how could the body reduce the CO2 concentration in the blood?
What other substance can be manipulated to accomplish this goal
Removing H+ from the blood is a way to reduce CO2 concentration in the blood by pushing the blood buffer reaction to the right
Special nerve cells or receptors that sense changes in the chemical composition of the blood
chemoreceptors
chemo- refers to the chemical compisition of the blood
chemoreceptors can detect acidosis/alkalosis among other things (elevated/optimal levels of CO2 and O2 for example). Chemoreceptors can affect the respiratory rate based on their detections
Fill in the blank
The human body contains 4-6 liters of blood, which consists of two parts: ____ and ____
Plasma and cellular materials
cellular components - made of bone marrow before their relese into circulatory system
plasma - aqueos solution in which cellular components are found. Composed of water, nutrients, hormones, proteins, salt, gases and amino acids
Comes from the liquid portion of the blood; It is the liquid that remains after the blood has clotted
serum
serum = plasma - clotting factors (fibrinogen)
The fraction of an anticoagulated blood sample that contains most of the white blood cells and platelets following centrifugation.
buffy coat
Describe the relationship between plasma volume, hydration, and blood pressure
↑Plasma volume, ↑ blood pressure (if more liquid is exerted on vessel walls, it will exert more pressure)
↓ Plasma volume, ↓ BP
hydration status is linked to plasma volume
What hormones are related to the regulation of plasma volume?
think of hormones involved in fluid balance!
aldosterone, ADH (vasopressin), and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
aldosterone - increases Na+ absorption in the distal colvoluted tube and collecting duct of the nephron. In presence of ADH, it drives H2O reabsorption through osmosis
ADH - acts directly on collecting duct in the nephron to increase H2O absorption
ANP - opposite of aldosterone; decreases plasma volume by decreasing Na+ reabsorption
What are the three categories of blood (formed) elements?
Leukocytes, platelets, and erythrocytes
Small, colorless cell fragments involved in hemostatis. They form clots and stop or prevent bleeding
platelets
Note for MCAT: the clotting cascade must be thouroughly regulated to avoid pathology i.e blood clots getting dislodged and stuck in vessels, causing thromboembolism
Erythrocytes are created in the bone marrow in response to what hormone? Where is this hormone released from?
Erythrocytes are created in the bone marrow in response to erythropoeitin, which is *released from the kidney*
What protein polymer in erythrocytes is responsible for an RBC’s ability to carry oxygen?
hemoglobin
Erythrocytes express ____ on their surface, some of which are antigens that play a role in blood typing
Glycoproteins
A type of inheritance in which two versions (alleles) of the same gene are expressed separately to yield different traits in an individual
codominace
ex: ABO blood typing
True or False
When it comes to blood typing, individuals develop antibodies against the antigens that they do have
False; individuals develop antibodies against the antigens that they do not have and the body attacks blood cells that have antigens that it considers foreign
Fill in the blanks
An individual with type A blood produces ____ antibodies and can receive blood from ____ and can donate blood to ____
An individual with type A blood produces Anti-B antibodies and can *receive *blood from type A and type O and can *donate blood *to type A and type AB
Individuals can receive blood from anyone that does not have antigens that correspond to the recipients antibodies! I.e, someone with type AB blood has no antibodies, thus they can receive blood from everyone but only donate to other AB folks. Someone with O blood has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies and thus cannot receive from anyone unless they also do not have A and B antigens (other O blood folks). Since people with O blood do not have any antigens, they are universal donors
An inherited protein found on the surface of red blood cells. If your blood has the protein, you’re ____ positive.
Rh factor
the Rh factor is independent of the ABO typing system
Someone with AB+ blood is a universal acceptor because they do not produce any anti-A, anti-B, or anti-Rh antibodies. O- folks are universal donors because their blood contains no relevant antigens
name the mnenoc to help you remember the AV valves
LAB RAT: left atrium = bicuspid, right atrium = tricuspid
Follow the path of blood as it moves through the heart
- Right atrium
- Tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.
- Heart beats → ventricle pushes blood through the pulmonic valve into pulmonary artery.
- Pulmonary artery carries blood to the lungs where it “picks up” oxygen.
- Blood leaves lungs to return to the heart through the pulmonary vein.
- Blood enters the left atrium.
- Drops through the mitral valve into the left ventricle.
- Left ventricle then pumps blood through the aortic valve and into the aorta.
- Aorta feeds the rest of the body through a system of blood vessels
- Blood returns to the heart from the body via the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. This blood carries little oxygen, as it is returning from the body where oxygen was used.
- The vena cavas pump blood into the right atrium and the cycle begins all over again.
Name the atrioventricular valves
The bicuspid (mitral) and tricuspid valves
Half-moon-shaped leaflets of endocardium and connective tissues, situated between the aorta and the left ventricle and between the pulmonary artery and the right ventricle. These valves permit blood to be forced into the arteries, but prevent backflow from the arteries into the ventricles.
the aortic and pulmonary valves fall into what category?
Semilunar valves
the aortic and pulmonary valves
Low BP is clinically described as…
hypotension
which can cause fainting or dizziness because the brain doesn’t receive enough blood
High BP is clinically described as…
hypertension
Over time, if untreated, it can cause health conditions, such as heart disease and stroke.
Eating a healthier diet with less salt, exercising regularly, and taking medications can help lower blood pressure.
What are the three major types of blood vessels?
Arteries, capillaries, and veins
Blood vessels that move blood away from the heart
artery
Tiny blood vessels where gas exchange occurs
capillaries
Blood vessels that move blood back towards the heart
veins
Fill in the blanks
After moving through the capillaries, deoxygenated blood (in systemic circulation) moves into the ____, which drain into the ____, which then gather into the venae cavae before returning to the heart
After moving through the capillaries, deoxygenated blood (in systemic circulation) moves into the venules, which drain into the veins, which then gather into the venae cavae before returning to the heart
A thin membrane that lines the inside of the heart and blood vessels. ____ cells release substances that control vascular relaxation and contraction as well as enzymes that control blood clotting, immune function and platelet adhesion.
endothelium
The endothelium function is related to what conditions?
- Inflammation
- Vasodilation/constriction
- Blood clotting
- angiogenesis
- hypertension
- antherosclerosis
- diabetes complications
be familiar with the gist of these ideas
Generates action potentials that causes the upper heart chambers (atria) to contract. Via gap junctions, the action potential can propogate through cardiac tissue, causing contractions. The signal passes through the AV node to the lower heart chambers (ventricles), causing them to contract, or pump.
The pacemaker of the heart
Sinoatrial (SA) node
After SA node initiates action potential that triggers the atria to contract, the signal passes through this structure. The ____ then allows action potentials to pass through to the ventrcles
atrioventricular (AV) node
After the action potential reaches the ventricles, the ventricles must contract to push the blood out of the heart. Where is the signal sent next?
The signal is sent through the Bundle of His (right and left branches), and the Purkinje fibers to all of the muscle cells of the ventricles
Transmits electrical signal from the AV node to its right and left branches
Bundle of His
Specialized conducting fibers composed of electrically excitable cells. They conduct cardiac action potentials more quickly and efficiently than any of the other cells in the heart’s electrical conduction system. Act as a direct coupling between the AV node system and the ventricles.
Purkinje Fibers
What is this first equation used to measure? What is the name of this equation?
Resistance in Flow. This equation is Ohm's Law for fluids
| It can be used to measure blood flow in blood vessels
## Footnote
Given the two equations, we know that given constant flow, resistance (R)and ΔP are proportional to one another. Meaning, if we inrease resistance, ΔP increases too (if we maintain the same flow)
What is the second equation used to measure? What is the name of the eqn?
This equation can be used to calculate the resistance . It is a form of Poiseuille’s Law
Can be used to measure resistance in blood flow
The dysregualtion of hydrostatic pressure and oncotic pressure causing fluid buildup is identified by what medical condition?
Edema
What is the name of the phenomenon that explains why when an oxygen atom binds to one of hemoglobin’s four binding sites, the affinity to oxygen of the three remaining available binding sites increases?
Cooperative binding
Increased affinity is caused by a conformational change, or a structural change in the hemoglobin molecule
What can you deduce from the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve?
- the more oxygen present in the blood, the more liekly Hb is to bind to O2
the partial pressure of O2 is lower in areas where exercise is happening, allowing even more oxygen to be delivered precisely where it is needed (bc lower partial pressure = less likely it will bind to Hb –> more free flowing oxygen to go to muscles, brain, etc).
Using the bicarbonate equilibrium reaction, how does an increase in CO2 affect the pH of the blood?
An increase in CO2 correlates with a lower pH due to a higher concentration of H+ ions
increase in reactant (CO2) → reaction favors products (bicarb & H+)
increased CO2 → increased carbonic acid production → converted into H+ ions and bicarbonate anions → pH decreases → acidic conditions (acidosis)
What allosterically regulates Hb, causing Hb to have less affinity for oxygen at a given partial pressure of oxygen?
H+
This phenomenon is called the Bohr effect
The Bohr effect describes hemoglobin’s lower affinity for oxygen secondary to increases in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and/or decreased blood pH
How does 2,3-biphosphoglyceric acid (2,3-BPG) affect the allosteric regulation of Hb?
2,3-BPG causes a rightward shift of the dissociation curve
a rightward shift reflects a lesser affinity for oxygen
Fetal Hb is less affected by 2,3-BPG. This allows fetal Hb to “take” oxygen from maternal Hb
The enzyme that assists rapid inter-conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid, protons and bicarbonate ions.
carbonic anhydrase
On a graph, the systolic pressure would most likely represent the [highest/lowest] point on a peak
Highest
The ____ of blood throguout the systemic circulatory system is determined by the heart (or LVAD) and is equal to cardiac output of the heart
volumetric flow rate
cardiac output = (stroke volume) x (heart rate)
cardiac output = volume of blood pumped by the heart every minute and is the product of the stroke volume
https://youtu.be/-0CXs9L9O0A
volume of blood that is ejected from the left ventricle in one cardiac cycle
the difference in LV volume between the beginning and end of ejection
stroke volume
If you are given a heart rate in Hertz (Hz), what are the units?
cyles/second
Hz is the SI unit of frequency
Heart rate is the number of cardiac cycles per….
Minute
Name the equation
Q = A x V
There is a law that states that pressure (ΔP) drop across a pipe (or vessel) is directionally proprtional to its resistance (R).
Ohm’s law for flow
ΔP = Q x R where Q is volumetric rate
