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Endocrine System Flashcards

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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

Glands that secrete substances through openings (ducts) onto your body surfaces

A

exocrine glands

i.e sweat glands, skin oil glands, earwax glands, breast milk glands

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2
Q

Name at least two examples of endocrine glands that end in “gland”

A
  • pituitary gland
  • thyroid gland
  • parathyroid glands
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3
Q

Name three endocrine glands that don’t end in “gland”

A
  • Hypothalamus
  • adrenal cortex
  • medulla
  • pancreas
  • gonads
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4
Q

Name 2 organs that have both exocrine and endocrine functions

A
  • Pancreas (releases digestive enzymes via ducts & hormones i.e insulin and glucagon)
  • Liver (releases bile via ducts & secretes angiotensin hormone)
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5
Q

When a cell secretes a signaling moleculethat acts on a nearby cell

A

paracrine signaling

heavily invlved in differentiation in embryonic development

para = next to

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6
Q

when a cell releases a molecule that acts on itself

A

autocrine signaling

auto = Self

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7
Q

Signaling that requires cells to be in close contact with each other

A

juxtacrine signaling

juxta - think just next to

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8
Q

A cell that releases secretions via exocytosis

A

merocrine cells

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9
Q

Cells that release secretions via membrane-bound vesicles

A

apocrine cell

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10
Q

Results from rupture of the plasma membrae, destroying the cell and relesing its product from the cytoplasm into the lumen

i.e sebaceous glands of the skin

A

holocrine secretion

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11
Q

Hormones can be classified according to their chemical structure as ____ hormones, ____ hormones, or ____ derivatives

A

Peptide hormones, steroid hormones, or amino acid derivatices

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12
Q

True or False

Peptide hormones can diffuse freely in the blood, but cannot cross the lipid bilayer membrane of their target cells

A

True

due to their hydrophillic nature

Thus, they have to exert their effects via receptors embedded on the plasma membrane surfce

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13
Q

Peptide or Steroid Hormone?

Which type of hormone is associated with signal cascades, amplificiaction, and rapid, intense, short-term impacts on cellular functions?

A

Peptide hormones

due to second messenger systems (i.e cAMP) resulting in signal cascades

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14
Q

The image below describes what process?

A

Second-messenger systems

in peptide hormones

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15
Q

Steroid or Peptide hormones?

Which hormone category requires transport proteins to reach their targets?

A

Steroid hormones

their hydrophobic nature prevents them from being soluble in bloodstream

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16
Q

Albumin and sex-hormone binding globulin are examples of …

A

transport proteins

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17
Q

Peptide or Steroid?

____ hormones can diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer membrane and enter their target cells

A

Steroid hormones

due to their hydrophobicity and small size

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18
Q

Peptide or Steroid hormone?

Works by modulating gene transcription

receptor-hormone complex binds directly to DNA to affect transcription

A

Steroid hormones

associated with a slower-onset and longer-lasting physiological response

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19
Q

Name at least 4 steroid hormones

A
  • Estradiol
  • Testosterone
  • Aldosterone
  • Cortisol

Note: steroid hormones have 4-ring structure!!!

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20
Q

peptide or steroid

____ are first translated as preprohormones, then (in the rough ER) modified into prohormones. Prohormones are processed in the Golgi apparatus, then are cleaved by endo____ases and may be modified by the addition of carbohydrates to generate the final, active form of the hormone. The hormones are then packaged into vescicels to be releasex via exocytosis

A

Peptide hormones

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21
Q

Peptide or Steroid?

Synthezides from cholesterol in the smooth ER and *diffuse directly through the cell membrane *

A

Steroid

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22
Q

Peptide or Steroid (function)

Regulation of other hormones

A

Peptide

+ short term responses

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23
Q

Peptide or Steroid (function)

Sex, sugar, and salt

The 3 S’s!

A

Steroid

salt = mineralocorticoids

sugar = glucocorticoids

steroid hormoes affects the 3 S’s

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24
Q

Which amino acid derived hormones are lipid soluble and behave much like steroid hormones?

A

T3 and T4

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25
Q

Which amino acid derived hormones are water-soluble and act similar to peptide hormones, exerting powerful, short term responses?

A

Epinephrine and norephinephrine

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26
Q

True or False

Water-soluble amino acid derived hormones are either water soluble or lipid-soluble

A

False

Some are both! i.e Melatonin

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27
Q

Name the hormone category

any of a class of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland that affect the secretion of other endocrine glands

A

Tropic hormones

tropic hormones –> target cells –> other hormones

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28
Q

hormones that directly stimulate target cells to induce effects

A

nontropic hormones

nontropc hormones –> target cells –> physiological effects

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29
Q

the hypothalamus-anterior pituitary-adrenal cortex (HPA) axis is an example of a ____ loop

A

Negative feedback loop

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30
Q

What is the tropic hormone that the hypothalamus releases in the HPA axis?

A

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

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31
Q

Which hormone acts on the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

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32
Q

This hormone is tropic and acts on the adrenal cortex, causing the release of cortisol

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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33
Q

What is the physiological function of the negative feedback loop of the HPA axis?

A

The negative feedback exerted by cortisol on CRH and ACTH inhibits further cortisol production, which prevents levels of cortisol from getting out of control and inducing an overly intense long-term stress response

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34
Q

Name one hormone involved in the positive feedback loop of labor?

A

oxytocin

uterine contactions stimulate the release of more oxytocin, which stimulates stronger contractions, and the process continues to amplify itself until childbirth

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35
Q

Which type of feedback loops have a distinct physiological endpoint?

A

Positive feedbak loops

without an endpoint, these loops would spiral out of control

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36
Q

the branch of biology (specifically of physiology) which studies the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system; i.e. how the brain regulates the hormonal activity in the body.

A

Neuroendocrinology

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37
Q

In general, when thinking about endocrine regulation or the regulation of any biochemical pathway, you should (probably) be thinking about ____ feedback

A

Negative

You should hesitate choosing positive feedback on the MCAT! Positive feedback loops are rare.

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38
Q

The two main hormones associated with glucose regulation are

A

Insulin and glucagon

growth hormone (GH), epinephrine, and cortisol also affect glucose levels

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39
Q

____ is a peptide hormone released by the pancreas in response to high glucose levels

A

Insulin

function: reduce blood glucose levels by promoting the transport

function: reduce blood glucose levels by promoting the transport of glucose into the cells via insulin receptors

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40
Q

promotes the transport glucose into the cells

A

insulin receptors

these receptors then activate glucose transporters and increases the transport of glucose into the cell

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41
Q

What can 3 options do cells have with increased glucose uptake?

A
  1. use glucose immediately via glycolysis
  2. storage as glycogen in muscle and liver
  3. adiptocytes can store downstream byproducts of glucose metabolism as triglycerides

insulin upregualtes all of these proceses, as well as protein synthesis

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42
Q

the technical term for a fat cell

A

adiptocytes

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43
Q

what hormone reduces the rate of glyconeogenesis, lipolysis, and fatty acid oxidation, and protein breakdown

A

Insulin

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44
Q

What hormone is released by the pancreas when there are suboptimal levels of glucose?

A

glucagon

glucose is gone

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45
Q

Which hormone promotes glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver cells?

A

glucagon

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46
Q

the biochemical pathway in which glycogen breaks down into glucose-1-phosphate and glucose when blood glucose levels drop

A

glycogenolysis

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47
Q

the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like lactic acid, glycerol, amino acids and occurs in liver and kidneys.

A

gluconeogenesis

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48
Q

graphically describe the relationships between blood glucose levels, insulin, and glycogen

A
49
Q

which hormone released by the adrenal cortex increases blood glucose levels in response to stress?

A

Cortisol

50
Q

which hormone released by the adrenal medulla plays a major role in the fight-or-flight response and increases blood glucose levels

A

epinephrine

51
Q

state where adrenal hormones are secreted from

A
52
Q

what hormone is released in response to physical stress and growth, but also increases blood glucose levels?

A

Growth hormone (GH)

53
Q

List 3+ things

the physiological functions of calcium include:

A
  • Bone density
  • NT release
  • muscle contractions
  • second messenger within the cell
54
Q

What are the three primary hormones that perform Calcium level maintencance

A
  1. parathyroid hormone (PTH)
  2. calcitonin
  3. calcitriol
55
Q

Name the hormone

secreted in response to low blood calcium levels; elevates Ca levels by stimulating increased activity of osteoclasts. Increases calcium absorption from the intestine indirectly by promoting the activation of vitamin D, decreases calcium storage in the bones, and in the kidneys promotes calcium retention

A

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

56
Q

cells that break down bone, releasing calcium into the bloodstream

A

osteoclasts

57
Q

Name the hormone

released by C cells of thyroid gland and inhibits osteoclast activity; decreases plasma calcium levels by increasing calcium storage in the bones and increasing calcium excretion from the body

A

calcitonin

58
Q

cells that help build bone and therefore reduce blood Ca levelsby storing Ca in bone tissue

A

osteoblasts

59
Q

plays a crucial role in regulation of serum calcium and phosphate levels

A

vitamin D

60
Q

inactive form of vitamin D3, which is processed to form calcitriol and is the biologically active form that affects calcium and phosphate levels

A

cholecalciferol

61
Q

form of vitamin D that increases serum calcium levels through the absorption of Ca2+ from the GI tract

A

calcitriol

62
Q

How does a lack of fluid manifest physiologically?

think of fluid as blood volume and blood osmolarity

A
  • reduced blood volume (relatively little water is present in the blood plasma)
  • reduced BP (consequence of reduced blood volume; less liquid to exert pressure againt walls of blood vessels)
63
Q

How does a surplus of fluid manifest physiologically?

think of fluid as blood volume and blood osmolarity

A
  • increased blood volume
  • increased blood pressure
64
Q

What two hormones primarily respond to low fluid levels by increasing fluid retention?

A
  1. aldosterone
  2. antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
65
Q

ADH is also known as….

A

vasopressin

66
Q

Vasopressin is also known as….

A

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

67
Q

How does aldosterone increase fluid retention?

A
  • *increasing Na+ *absorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the nephron
  • increasing excretion of potassium and hydrogen ions in urine

does not affect osmolarity bc Na+ reabsorption drives H2O absorption

68
Q

How does ADH increase fluid retention?

A

increases the permeabilitiy of the collecting duct to water, thereby increasing water absorption

ADH ↓ the osmolarity of blood by ↑ amount of H2O present

69
Q

ADH is released by the ____ in response to low blood pressure and high plasma osmolarity

A

posterior pituitary gland

70
Q

ADH is released by the posterior pituitary gland in response to ____ and ____

A
  1. low blood pressure
  2. high plasma osmolarity
71
Q

aldosterone is released by the ____ in response to low blood pressure, but is regulated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

A

adrenal cortex

72
Q

aldosterone is regulated by the ____

A

renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)

link

73
Q

aldosterone is released in response to …

A

low blood pressure

74
Q

in response to low BP, the ____ cells of the kidney release the enzyme renin

A

juxtaglomerular

aka granular cells; synthesize, store, and secrete the enzyme renin

75
Q

Renin converts angiotensinogen into ____

A

angiotensin 1

76
Q

in the lungs and in blood vessels in the body, angiotensin-converting enzyme converts angiotensin 1 to ____

A

angiotensin 2

77
Q

____ is the immediate stimulus of aldosterone release

A

angiotensin 2

78
Q

____ restores BP, which in turn inhibits the release of renin (another example of of a negative feedback loop)

A

aldosterone

79
Q

hormone used to combat excess blood volume; it’s realeased in response to high blood volume and decreased Na+ reabsorption in the kidney as well as increasing glomerular filration rate (GFR) and inhibiting aldosterone release

A

atrial natriuretic peptide ANP

80
Q

____ is the hormone associated with long-term responses to stress

A

cortisol

81
Q

cortisol is in what class of hormones?

A

glucocorticoids

82
Q

cortisol is released from the ….

A

adrenal cortex

83
Q

cortisol’s two main effects are:

A
  1. increasing blood glucose levels by stimulating gluconeogenesis and acting as an insulin antagonist, facilitating insulin resistance
  2. reduces inflammation by inhibiting certain inflammatory immune responses
84
Q

short term resposes to stress (fight flight or freeze) are assoicated with what two hormones?

A

Epinephrine and norephinephrine

these two hormones are derived from tyrosine

85
Q

norephinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine are neurohormones that fall under which category?

A

catecholoamines

86
Q

A type of neurohormone important in stress responses. High levels cause high blood pressure which can lead to headaches, sweating, pounding of the heart, pain in the chest, and anxiety

A

catecholoamines

87
Q

a chemical that is made by nerve cells and used to send signals to other cells

A

neurohormone

88
Q

epiephrine and norephinephrine are released from the

A

adrenal medulla

89
Q

Epinephrine and norephinephrine increase blood glucose levels via what three mechanisms?

A
  1. glucogenolysis
  2. gluconeogenesis
  3. glucagon release
90
Q

name 5 physiological stress responses that epinephrine and norepinephrine are responsible for

A
  1. increased HR
  2. respiratory rate
  3. lipolysis
  4. vasodilation of blood vessels supplying skeletal muscles
  5. vasoconstriction of most other blood vessels
91
Q

norephinephrine is a ____ when it is used to relay signals between neurons in the sympathetic NS, but is a ____ when it is released into the blood to induce systemic affects in other organ systems

A

neurotransmitter; hormone

92
Q

what thyroid hormones regulate the metabolic rate?

A

T3 and T4

93
Q

what thyroid hormones regulate the metabolic rate?

A

T3 and T4

94
Q

T3 and T4 are released in response to which hormone?

A

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

95
Q

insufficient levels of thyroid hormones (often caused by iodine sufficiencies) leads to ….

A

hypothyroidism

96
Q

steroid hormone released from the testes involved in reprouduction and secondary sex characteristics

A

testosterone

97
Q

steroid hormone released from the ovaries involved in reprouduction and secondary sex characteristics

A

estrogen

stimulated by FSH

98
Q

steroid hormone that prepares the uterus for implantation and maintaines it througout pregnancy

A

progesterone

99
Q

the release of estrogen and testosterone is stimulated by

A

lutenizing hormone (LH)

100
Q

____ is a peptide hormne secreted in response to low levels of testosterone and estrogen

A

LH

lutenizing hormone

101
Q

LH is released in response to which hormone?

A

gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)

102
Q

a surge in which hormone leads to ovulation?

A

LH

103
Q

a peptide hormone released in response to GnRH that promotes the growth of ovarian follicles in females, and spermatogenesis in males. Stimulates the ovaries to release estrogen

A

follicile-stimulating hormone (FSH)

104
Q

GnRH triggers the anterior pituitary to release what two peptide hormones?

A

LH and FSH

105
Q

what hormone maintains te corpus luteum and induces it to secrete progesterone during the first trimester?

A

human chronic gonadotropin (hCG)

106
Q

Name. the hormone

Released in response to reduced levels of dopamine tha occur after the placenta is expelled during childbirth. Acts on the mammary glands to enable milk production

A

prolactin

107
Q

True or False

TSH is a tropic hormone

A

True. It stimulates the release of other hormones (T3 and T4) therefore it is a tropic hormone

108
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the release of which hormones?

A

cortisol and androgens

note: ACTH is released by the anterior pituitary

109
Q

True or False

LH is a tropic hormone

A

True. It stimulates the release of other hormones - estrogen and testosterone

110
Q

True or False

FSH is not a tropic hormone

A

False. A tropic hormone is any hormone that that work on other endocrine glands. FSH acts on the ovaries in women, stimulating the maturation of ovarian follicle for the release of an egg during ovulation. In men, it stimulates the testes to produce sperm. It also causes the ovaries to release the hormone, estrogen

111
Q

GnRH is secreted from the ….

A

hypothalamus

112
Q

what hormone is secreted from the hypothalamus and stimulates the release of TSH?

A

thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)

113
Q

True or False

CRF and CRH are different hormones

A

False. Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) is also called corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

114
Q

oxytocin’s two main functions are:

A
  1. promotion of uterine contractions leading up to childbirth
  2. milk ejection resulting from the contraction of smooth muscle tissues in the milk ducts

also promotes social bonding

115
Q

corticosteroids can be broken down into which three categories?

A

glucocorticoids (i.e cortisol)
mineralcorticoids (i.e aldosterone)
and cortical sex hormones (i.e testosterone and estrogen)

116
Q

Name the hormone

slows down the rate of digestie hormone secretion in response to high levels of glucose and amino acids. Also inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon

A

somatostatin

117
Q

hormone important for the development and maturation of T cells

A

thymosin

118
Q

Caused by increasingly severe insulin resistance

A

Type 2 diabetes

119
Q

Caused by an autoimmune reaction that destroys the beta cells of the pancreas (which secrete insulin)

A

Type 1 diabetes

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