Nervous System Flashcards
1
Q
what are the three regions of the neural tube in a developing fetus?
A
- Prosencephalon (forebrain)
- Mesencephalon (midbrain)
- Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
2
Q
Name the brain region in the neural tube
the ____ is responsible for much of what we associate with behavior and personality, and develops into the diencephalon – which contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pineal & pituitary glands – as well as the telencephalon – which contains the cerebrum
A
Prosencephalon (forebrain)
3
Q
the limbic system includes…
A
- hypothalamus
- hippocampus
- thalamus
- amygdala
4
Q
the ____ is the largest structure in the brain which contains the cerebral cortex
A
cerebrum
5
Q
region of cerebral cortex associated with higher level cognition and executive functions
A
frontal lobe
6
Q
region of cerebral cortex involed in sensory processing/perception
A
parietal lobe
7
Q
region of cerebral cortex that has prominet roles in sound and language processing, as well as memory consolidation. This region also contains the** limbic system**, which plays a role in emotions and emotional memory formation
A
temporal lobe
8
Q
primary visual cortex
A
occipital lobe
9
Q
sometimes referred to as the 5th cortex of the brain, this region is deep within the cerebrum and takes in auditory, olfactory, gustatory, visual, and somatosensory cues via thalamic and horizontal cortical afferents from inside the body (also known as interoception) to determine the senses we perceive
A
insula
10
Q
“old brain” associated with functions that have been highly conserved throughout evolution. Includes the cerebellum, pons, and medulla
A
hindbrain
11
Q
relays signals between the cerebellum, medulla and the rest of the brain. Involved in sleep, respiration, swallowing, taste, bladder control, and balance
A
pons
12
Q
associated with autonomic functions i.e breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
A
medulla
13
Q
area of hindbrain associated with coordinated movement
A
cerebellum
14
Q
topmost part of the brainstem, the connection central between the brain and the spinal cord. Serves important functions in motor movement, homeostatic regulation, sleep, and in auditory and visual processing.
A
midbrain
15
Q
region of brainstem associated with processing auditory signals and sending them to the medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus
A
inferior colliculus
16
Q
part of midbrain that processes visual signalls and participates in control of eye movements
A
superior colliculus
17
Q
part of midbrain that facilitaties coordination of voluntary motor control
A
substantia nigra
18
Q
the midbrain, together with the medulla and pons are collectivelly referred to as the ______
A
brainstem
forms a stem that connects brain to the spinal cod
19
Q
processes memory, emotions, and decision-making.
aka fear center of the brain
A
amygdala
20
Q
responsible for the consolidation of short term memory into long term memory
A
hippocampus
21
Q
links the nervous system to the endocrine sysem via the pituitary gland
A
hypothalamus
22
Q
modulates sleep through melatonin production
A
pineal gland
23
Q
projection through which the hypotalamus secretes oxytocin and ADH (vasopressin)
A
posterior pituitary
24
Q
part of reward pathway
A
septal nuclei
25
relays sense and motor signals and regulates sleep and alertness
| post office of the brain
thalamus
26
spinal region that corresponds with the neck and contains sevel cervical vertebrae, C1-C7
cervical spine
27
spinal region that corresponds with the curve of the upper back and contains 12 vertebrae, T1-T12
thoracic spine
28
spinal region that corresponds with the lower back and has 5 vertebrae, L1-L5
lumbar spine
29
forms sacrum in adulthood, but throughout development is divided into 5 vertebrae, S1-S5
sacral vertebrae
30
the vertebral column ends with the ...
coccyx (tailbone)
31
neurons that arise from the central nervous system and supply the ganglia
preganglionic neuron
## Footnote
in the parasympathetic system, preganglionic neurons are long, synapsing on ganglia near or on the target organ. In the sympathetic system, they are much shorter and go to sympathetic trunk
32
neurons that arise from the ganglia and supply the tissues.
postganglionic neurons
33
chain of ganglia near the spinal cord that extends approximatelt from the base of the skull to the coccyx. Preganglionic neurons with synapse with Postganglionic neurons here
sympathetic trunk
34
pre and postganglionic fibers of the parasympathetic system, as well as preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system primarily use what neurotransmitter?
acetylcholine
35
postganglionic sympathetic fibers mostly use what neurotransmitter?
Norepinephrine
## Footnote
pg. 131 biology NS
36
the planning of motor control is initiated in the ____ and executed by the ___
premotor cortex, primary motor cortex
37
the electrochemical signals generated by the primary motor cortex will propogate down the spinal cord after being modulated by ____ and _____
cerebellum and basal ganglia
## Footnote
this modulation helps coordinate the contractions of multiple muscle groups together into a unified, directed movement
38
what neurotransmitter is associated with muscle coordination, and the dysregulation of which is implicated in diseases of fine motor control deterioration such as Parkinson's?
Dopamine
39
the main excitatory neurotransitter that is rsponsible for depolarization and the elicitation of action potentials
glutamate
| the most common NT!
40
the main inhibitory NT responsible for hyperpolarizing neurons, reducing their likelihood of firing. Associated with many of the physioogical effects of alcohol intoxication
GABA
41
____ are the subtype of glial cells that form the blood-brain barrier (along with epithelial cells). Their other roles include detoxification, provision of nutrients, and recovery from injury.
Astrocytes
42
# Name the glial cell with the respective functions
* insulin-dependent active transport of glucose from the bloodstream
* detoxification
* providing nutrients
* injury recovery
astrocytes
43
# Name the glial cell
provide myelination in the CNS
oligodendrocytes
44
Provide myelination in the PNS
Schwann cells
45
# True or False
All neurons are myelinated
False
46
Name the primary functions of myelination
* speeding up the transmission of action potentials
* preventing cross-talk between axons
47
# Name the glial cell
perform an immune function and act similar to macrophages. They clean out microbes and debris (i.e waste and damaged cells, extracellular protein deposits, neuron pruning) in the CNS
microglia
48
# Name the glial cells
CSF is secreted by ___
ependymal cells
## Footnote
cerebrospinalfluid provides a more constant, stable chemical environment and physically cushions the CNS
49
difference in electric potential (difference is distribution of charged ions) on each side of the cell membrane
membrane potential
50
if there are more positively charged particles on the outside of a cell than on the inside of a cell, is the membrane potential *negative or positive*?
Negative
| this reflects the lack of positive charge *inside* of the cell
51
the intracellular environment is rich in ____, and relatively poori ____, ____, and _____
the intracellular environment is rich in K+, and relatively poori Na+, Cl, and Ca2+
52
Na+/K+ ATPase is a transmembrane ion transporter that plays a key role in regulating membrane potentials. Another name for this transporter is....
sodium-potassium pump
53
Na+/K+ ATPase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes ATP to pump ____ sodium ions at a time outside of the cell while bringing in ____ potassium ions
3 Na+ ions outside the cell, 2 K+ ions inside
54
the sodium potassium pump stabalizes at a resting potential of ____
-70mV
55
any changes in the sodium-potassium pump that destabilize the -70mV potential difference by bringing it close to 0mV results in ______
depolarization
56
the cellular process that occurs in response to changes making the membrane potential difference more negative
hyperpolarization
| makes cell potential more positive
57
the small space between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron, and the place where neurotransmitters are released is called...
the **synaptic cleft**
58
changes in membrane potential that vary in size, as opposed to being all-or-none; local changes in the membrane potential
graded potential
59
most graded potentials are ____ meaning they raise the membrane potential, making it more positive. These are known as ** postynaptic potentials**
excitatory
60
____ make the membrane more negative, resulting in hyperpolarization
inhibitory postsynaptic graded potentials (IPSPs)
61
# True or False
Graded potentials can add up together if they are located close to eac othr or happen within a very short time span
True, this is called **spatial and temporal summation** respectively
62
a specialized part of the cell body (or soma) of a neuron that connects to the axon
axon hillock
63
structures past the axon hillock that open and close in response to changes in the membrane potential
voltage-gated sodium channels
64
what must happen in the neuron (hint: include voltage gated sodium channels in your answer) for depolarization to occur?
Enough graded potentials must occur to add up to the threshold potential that causes voltage gated sodium channels to open. Then Na+ will rush into the cell, causing the membrane potential to increase, becoming more positive than the threshold. This causes other channels to open up as well, the result being a cascade of depolarization going down the axon terminal
65
occurs when voltage gated potassium channels open up, and sodium channels close at +35mV. K+ is rushing out of the cell, making the membrane potential negative
repolarization
66
when the cell potential becomes so negative that potassium channels close, and Na+/K+ ATPase is able to bring the membrane potential and concentration gradient back to normal
hyperpolarization
67
when depolarization hits peak at +40mV, and sodium channels cannot open for a certain period of time
absolute refractory period
## Footnote
this serves as a safety check that prevents the signal from traveling backwards
68
when sodium channels are able to open again but the membrane remains hyperpolarized
relative refractory period
## Footnote
it is possible - just difficult - to generate an action potential at this time
69
what ion controls the channels that are at the end of an axon?
Ca2+
## Footnote
channels open in response to the change in membrane potential caused by the arriving wave of depolarization
70
the opening of Ca2+ channels is reponsible for the exocytosis of ____ from vesicles?
neurotransmitters
71
process by which hydrolytic enzymes break neurotransmitters apart, so as to prevent further receptor binding
degradation
72
the reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by a neurotransmitter transporter located along the plasma membrane of an axon terminal or glial cell after it has performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse
reuptake
73
NT that activates muscle contraction at the neuromuscular junction. Used in all autonomc outputs fromthe brain to the autonomic basal ganglia. Used in the parasympathetic nervous system for post-ganglionic connections
acetylcholine
## Footnote
p. 142
74
NT used in reward & motor pathways. Associated with Parkinson's and the loss of ____ neurons in the substantia nigra
dopamine
75
suppresses pain and can produce euphoria
endorphin
76
stimulates the fight or flight response
epinephrine
77
inhibitory NT of brainstem and spinal cord
glycine
78
NT used in post-ganglionic connections in the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. Increases arousal, alertness, and focuses attention
norephinephrine
79
NT that regulates intestinal movement in the GI tract. Regulates mood, appetitie, and sleep in the brain. Low levels associated with depression and mood disorders.
serotonin
80
Compare and contrast the signaling methods of electrical vs chemical synapses
Chemical synapses have the NT bind to the transmembrane receptor protein, while electrical synapses feature the direct, cell-to-cell diffusion of ions via gap junctions
81
the speed of transmission of chemical synapses is ____ than that of an electrical synapse
slower
82
____ synapses allow for the amplification of signals
chemical
83
____ synapses use the direct, cell-to-cell diffusion of ions through gap junctions as a signaling method
electrical
84
____ synapses use neurotransmitter binding to transmembrane receptor proteins as a signaling method
chemical
85
the ability to store charge in an electrical system; how much charge is on both sides of an insulator and the thickness of that insulation
capacitance
## Footnote
in a cell, the insulator is the cell membrane. The **higher the membrane capacitance, the more difficult it will be to change the membrane potential**, slowing down conduction and making it challenging for the neuron to depolarize
86
the ability to resist charge in an electrical system
resistance
87
# True or False
The cell membranes of neurons are characterized by both **capacitance**, as reflected by the difference in charge in both sides of the membrane, and** resistance**
True
88
# true or false
Larger neurons are easier to depolarize
False
## Footnote
Larger surfaces = more area to store charge along the membranses = higher capacitance, which makes it harder to depolarize
89
how much the cytoplasm impedes the flow of ions
cytoplasmic resistance
## Footnote
the more the cytoplasm impedes the flow if ions, the slower and more difficult conduction will be
90
the ability of the membrane to seperate charge
membrane resistance
## Footnote
high membrane resistance promots the effective tranmission of an action potential
91
charges stored across the membrane
membrane capacitance
92
# name the neuron structure
____ prevents the outflow of ions, significantly decreasing capacitance, allowing for conduction to be rapid down the axon
myelin
93
potential that. ispresent when the influx and efflux od ions through the membrane equalizes; the membrane potential that the system "balances out" at when it's not actively depolarizing
resting membrane potential
94
What equation can we use to determine the cell potential of a neuron?
Nernst equation
## Footnote
pg. 145 biology
95
when an action potential reaches the end of an axon, the signal is transmitted to the ____ via a neurotransmitter
post-synaptic membrane
## Footnote
Calcium then rushes into the presynaptic axon terminal, which sends vesicles carrying the NT into the synaptic cleft, The NT binds to the post-synaptic membrne and serves as a catylyst for its effect
