RESEARCH METHODS (YEAR 1) Flashcards
Define the aim of a study
A statement of what the researcher(s) intend to find out in a research study
What are extraneous variables?
They do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but may have an effect on the dependent variable - nuisance variables that muddy the waters and make it more difficult to detect a significant effect
Define operationalise
Ensuring that variables are in a form that can be easily tested
A concept such as ‘educational attainment’ needs to be specified more clearly if we are going to investigate it - e.g. it might be ‘GCSE grade in Maths’
Define standardise
- A set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study
- Includes standardised instructions - the instructions given to participants to tell them how to perform the task
Identify the key features of an experiment
Explain why standardisation is important in research procedures
- It is important to make sure that each participant did exactly the same thing in each condition
- Otherwise, results might vary because of changes in procedure rather than because of the IV
Define confounding variable
- A variable under study that is not the IV but which varies systematically with the IV
- Changes in the DV may be due to the confounding variable rather than the IV + therefore the outcome is meaningless
Define external validity
The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other setting (ecological validity); to other groups of people (population validly); over time (historical validity)
Define internal validity
The degree to which an observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation rather than other factors such as confounding/extraneous variables
Define mundane realism
- Refers to how a study mirrors the real world
- The research environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the research environment will occur in the real world
Distinguish between extraneous variables and confounding variables
What is a confederate?
AN individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigator
Define directional hypothesis
States the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participants
Define non-directional hypothesis
Predicts simply that there is a difference between two conditions or two groups of participants, without stating the direction of the difference
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements
Why would a researcher choose a non directional hypothesis rather than a directional hypothesis?
A non-directional hypothesis is often used when there is no past research or past research is contradictory
Define experimental design
A set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participants variables in an experiment
What is a repeated measures design?
- All participants experience all conditions (receive all levels of the IV)
What is an independent groups design?
Participants are placed in separate (independent) groups - each group experiences on condition
What is a matched pairs design?
- Pairs are matched within participants based on key characteristic believed to affect performance on the DV (e.g. IQ)
- One member of the pair experiences one condition and the other experiences the other condition
The characteristics the pairs are based on must be relevant to the study
Define order effect
In a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented (e.g. practice effect or fatigue effect)
What is counterbalancing?
Technique used to overcome order effects when using a repeated measures design
In the two ways of doing this, there are two conditions: A (in the morning) + B (in the afternoon)
Explain the steps of counterbalancing
- Divide into two groups - group 1 does A (morning) then B (afternoon), group 2 does B then A
- Trial 1: Condition A
Trial 2: Condition B
Trial 3: Condition B
Trial 4: Condition A
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment carried out in a controlled setting
High internal validity due to good control over all variables
Low ecological validity
What is a field experiment?
Controlled experiment conducted outside a laboratory
Low internal validity + high external validity
What is a natural experiment?
Experiment in which the experimenter had not manipulated the IV directly due to ethical or practical reasons
What is a quasi-experiment?
‘Almost’ experiments
No IV manipulated since the condition already exists
Define demand characteristics
A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find
Define investigator effects
Anything that an investigator does that has an effect on a participant’s performance in a study other than what was intended
How may a researcher deal with the effects of demand characteristics?
State five types of sampling
- Opportunity sampling
- Random sampling
- Stratified sampling
- Systematic sampling
- Volunteer sampling
What is opportunity sampling?
Recruit those people who are most convenient or most available
e.g. people walking past you in the street
What is random sampling?
Each item in a population has an equal chance of being selected
e.g. lottery method (in a hat) and random number table (pick number in a table and select those that represent numbers within number that stand for people_
What is stratified sampling?
- Subgroups (strata) within a population are identified (e.g. boys and girls)
- Participants are obtained from each of the strata in proportion to their occurrence in the population
What is systematic sampling?
Every nth person from a list or selection is picked
What is volunteer sampling?
Relies on volunteers to make up the sample | a.k.a. self-selected sample
What is informed consent?
Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, so they can make an informed decision about whether to participate
What is deception?
A participant is not told the true aims of a study (e.g. what participation will involve) and thus cannot truly give informed consent
What is the right to withdraw?
Participants can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way
Important in cases where it was not possible to give fully informed consent
What is protection from physical and psychological harm?
During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self-esteem or embarrassment
What is confidentiality?
Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected
What is privacy?
A person’s right to control the flow of information about themselves
Explain situations where apparent harm might be considered acceptable.
Discuss the role of the BPS’ (British Psychological Society) code of ethics
The BPS’ most recent code of ethics identifies four principles:
- Respect - includes standards of privacy and confidentiality and informed consent
- Competence - psychologists should maintain high standards in their professional work
- Responsibility - psychologists have a responsibility to their clients, to the general public + to the science of psychology | protecting participants from physical + psychological harm
- Integrity - psychologists should be honest + accurate, including reporting the findings of research accurately _ acknowledging potential limitations
Describe one way that informed consent is dealt with.
- Participants are asked to formally indicate their agreement to participate by, for example, signing a document which contains comprehensive info concerning the nature + purpose of the research and their role in it
- Gain presumptive consent
- Offer right to withdraw
Describe one way that deception is dealt with
- participants should be fully debriefed after the study
- need for deception should be approved by an ethics committee
Describe one way that ‘right to withdraw’ is dealt with
- participants should be informed at the beginning that they have the right to withdraw
Describe one way that protection from harm is dealt with
- avoid any risks greater than experienced in everyday life
- stop the study if harm is suspected
Describe one way that confidentiality is dealt with
- Researchers should not record the names of any participants
- They should use numbers of also names to represent individual participants
Describe one way that privacy is dealt with
- Do not study anyone without their informed consent unless it is in a public place + public behaviour (e.g. it would exclude couples’ intimate moments in a park)
What is a naturalistic observation?
An observation carried out in an everyday setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way but merely observes the behaviour(s) in question
What is a controlled observation?
A form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher
What is an overt observation?
Observational studies where participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied
What is a covert observation?
Observing people without their knowledge
Knowing that behaviour is being observed is likely to alter a participant;s behaviour
What is a participant observation?
Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which may affect their objectivity
What is a non-participant observation?
The observer is separate from the people being observed
What is inter-observer reliability?
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour
What are structured observations?
A researcher uses various systems to organise observations, such as behavioural categories and sampling procedures
What are unstructured observations?
Researcher records all relevant behaviour but has no system
What are behavioural categories?
Dividing a target behaviour (such as stress or aggression) into a subset of specific and operationalised behaviours
Give two types of sampling procedures
- Event sampling
- Time sampling
What is event sampling?
An observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour occurs
What is time sampling?
An observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame
E.g. noting what a target individual is doing every 15 seconds/20 seconds/1 minute
What is a questionnaire?
Data is collected through the used if written questions
What is a structured interview?
Any interview in which the questions are decided in advance
What is an unstructured interview?
The interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions
What is the difference between a questionnaire and an interview?
What are closed questions?
Questions that have a predetermined range of answers from which respondents select one
Tend to produce quantitative data - but Yes/No Asher’s are qualitative
What are open questions?
Questions that invite respondent to provide their own answers than select one of those provided
Tend to produce qualitative data
Define qualitative data
Non-numerical data
Define quantitative data
Data in numbers
