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BIOPSYCHOLOGY Flashcards

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1
Q

What two parts is the nervous system divided into?

A
  • Central nervous system
  • Peripheral nervous system
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2
Q

What is the central nervous system divided into?

A
  • Brain
  • Spinal cord
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3
Q

What is the central nervous system?

A
  • Comprises the brain and spinal cord
  • Receives information from the senses and controls the body’s responses
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4
Q

What is the brain?

A
  • Part of the central nervous system that is responsible for coordinating sensation, intellectual and nervous activity
  • Regulates body temperature, breathing and heart rate
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5
Q

What is the spinal cord?

A
  • Bundle of nerve fibres enclosed within the spinal column and which connects nearly all parts of the body with the brain
  • Ensures that signals from the brain are transmitted to the rest of the body via the PNS
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6
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

A
  • Part of the nervous system that is outside the brain and spinal cord
  • Transmits messages throughout the whole body from the brain and also relays messages back to the brain
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7
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system divided into?

A
  • Somatic nervous system
  • Autonomic nervous system
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8
Q

What is the somatic nervous system?

A
  • Responsible for carrying sensory and motor information to and from the CNS
  • Controls voluntary movements + processes
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9
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A
  • Governs the brain’s involuntary activities (e.g. stress + heartbeat) + is self-regulating
  • Transmits and receives information from organs
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10
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system divided into?

A
  • Sympathetic nervous system
  • Parasympathetic nervous system
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11
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

A
  • Associated with the ‘fight or flight’ response
  • Prepares the body for physical activity (e.g. running away of fighting)
    ^— increases heart rate + blood pressure
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12
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A
  • Relaxes the individual once the emergency has passed
    ^— a.k.a. ‘Rest and digest’ system
  • Regulates bodily functions like digestion + urination
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13
Q

What is meant by the sensory neuron?

A
  • Carries nerve impulses from sensory receptors (e.g. taste, vision, touch) to the spinal cord + the brain
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14
Q

What is meant by the relay neuron?

A
  • Most common type of neuron in CNA
  • Allow sensory + motor neurons to communicate with each other
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15
Q

What is meant by the motor neuron?

A
  • Form synapses with muscles _ control their contractions
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16
Q

Define synaptic transmission

A
  • Refers to the process by which a nerve impulse passes across the synaptic cleft from one neuron (presynaptic neuron) to another (postsynaptic neuron)
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17
Q

What is an action potential?

A
  • Neurons must transmit info both within the neuron + from one neuron to the next
  • The dendrites of neurons receive information from sensory receptors or other neurons
  • This info is then passed down to the cell body + on to the axon
  • Once the information has arrived at the axon, it travels down its length in the form of an electrical signal known as an action potential
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18
Q

Explain the nature of synaptic transmission

A
  • Action potential arrives at the terminal button at the end of the axon + needs to be transferred to another neuron or to tissue
    ^— must cross a gap between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron (called the synapse)
  • Vesicles at the end of the axon of the nerve cell (synaptic vesicles) contain chemical messengers that assist in the transfer of the impulse (neurotransmitters)
  • Action potential reaches synaptic vesicles —> causes them to release their contents through exocytosis
  • Released neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic gap + binds to specialised receptors on the surface of the cell that recognised + are activated by that neurotransmitter
  • Once activated, receptor molecules produce excitatory or inhibitory effects
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19
Q

Explain what is meant by excitation

A
  • Neurotransmitters are either excitatory or inhibitory
  • Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood that in excitatory signal is sent to the postsynaptic cell, which is then more likely to fire
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20
Q

Explain what is meant by inhibition

A
  • Neurotransmitters are either excitatory or inhibitory
  • Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the likelihood of that neuron firing
  • Responsible for calming the mind + body, inducing sleep
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21
Q

Explain the role of excitatory neurotransmitters

A
  • An excitatory neurotransmitter binding with a postsynaptic receptor causes an electrical change in the membrane of that cell
    ^— results in a excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
    ^— means that postsynaptic cell is more likely to fire
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22
Q

Explain the role of inhibitory neurotransmitters

A
  • An inhibitory neurotransmitter binds with a postsynaptic receptor
    ^— results in an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
    ^— makes it less likely that the cell will fire
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23
Q

How can

A
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24
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

A network of glands throughout the body that manufacture + secrete chemical messengers (hormones)

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25
Q

Outline the functions of the endocrine system

A
  • Endocrine glands produce + secrete hormones (chemical substances that regulate cell activity)
  • ## Endocrine system regulated by feedback (like how thermostat regulates room temp)wtaf
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26
Q

State three endocrine glands

A
  • Pituitary gland
  • Adrenal glands
  • Ovaries
  • Testes
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27
Q

List THREE hormones produced by the pituitary gland

A
  • ACTH - stimulates adrenal glands to produce cortisol
  • LH (luteinising hormone)-
  • FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
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28
Q

Outline the role of the pituitary gland (PG)

A
  • Produces hormones that influence the release of hormones from other glands
    ^— thus regulates many bodily functions
  • PG controlled by hypothalamus
  • High levels of hormones produced in other glands can stop the hypothalamus and pituitary releasing more of their own hormones
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29
Q

List FOUR hormones produced by the adrenal glands

A
  • Cortisol
  • Aldosterone
  • Adrenaline
  • Noradrenaline
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30
Q

Outline the role of the adrenal glands

A
  • Each adrenal gland made up of 2 distinct parts - adrenal cortex (OUTER) and adrenal medulla (INNER)
  • Hormones released by adrenal cortex are necessary for life while those by the adrenal medulla are not
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31
Q

Outline the role of cortisol

A
  • Regulates or supports many important bodily functions
    ^— e.g. cardiovascular + anti-inflammatory functions
  • Production increased in response to stress
  • If low cortisol, individual has low pressure, poor immune function and an inability to deal with stress
32
Q

Outline the role of aldosterone

A
  • Maintains blood volume + blood pressure
33
Q

Outline the role of adrenaline

A
  • Helps the body respond to a stressful situation
    ^— e.g. by increasing hear rate + blood flow to the muscles and brain + helping with the conversion of glycogen to glucose to provide energy
34
Q

Outline the role of noradrenaline

A
  • Constricts the blood vessels causing blood pressure to increase
35
Q

List TWO hormones released by the ovaries

A
  • Oestrogen
  • Progesterone
36
Q

Outline the role of the ovaries

A
  • Responsible for the production of eggs

Progesterone: important in post-ovulation + associated with heightened sensitivity to social cues that indicate the presence of social opportunity or threat that would be significant in the case of pregnancy

37
Q

State the hormone produced by the testes

A

Testosterone

38
Q

Outline the role of the testes

A
  • Male reproductive glands
  • Testosterone causes development of male characteristics (e.g. facial hair, voice deepening + growth spurt in puberty)
  • T production controlled by hypothalamus + pituitary gland
39
Q

What is a hormone

A

The body’s chemical messengers - they travel through the bloodstream, influencing many different processes including mood, the stress response + bonding between mother + newborn baby

40
Q

Explain what is meant by the term ‘fight or flight response’

A
  • Evolved as a survival mechanism
  • Sequence of activity within the body that is triggered when the body prepared itself for defending/attacking (fight) or running away to safety (flight)
41
Q

Outline the roles of the amygdala and hypothalamus in the ‘fight or flight response’

A
42
Q

Outline the ‘fight or flight response’ or acute (sudden) stressors

A
43
Q

Outline the ‘fight or flight response’ or chronic (ongoing) stressors

A
44
Q

Outline the role of adrenaline in the ‘fight or flight response’

A
45
Q

What is the HPA axis?

A
46
Q

Explain what is meant by the term ‘localisation of function’

A

The principle that specific functions (e.g. language, memory, hearing, etc) have specific locations within the brain

Specific areas are associated with specific cognitive processes

47
Q

Outline the nature of the motor cortex

A
  • Responsible for the generation of voluntary motor movements
    ^— located in frontal lobe of brain along the precentral gyrus
  • Both hemispheres of the brain have a motor cortex (cortex on one side controls movement on the opposite side
48
Q

Outline the role of the somatosensory cortex

A
  • Detects sensory events arising from different regions of the body
  • Located in parietal lobe, along the postcentral gyrus

Postcentral gyrus dedicated to the processing of sensory info related to touch
- Using info from the skin, somatosensory cortex produces sensations of touch, pressure, pain + temp.
- Cortex on one side receives info from opposite side (like motor cortex)

49
Q

Outline the role of the visual centre in the brain

A
  • Primary visual centre in the brain is located in the visual cortex in the OCCIPITAL LOBE
  • Visual processing actually begins in retina
    -Nerve impulses from retina are transmitted to brain via optic nerve - some impulses travel to areas of the brain involved with coordination of circadian rhythms (majority terminate in thalamus)
    Thalamus - relay station that passes this info to visual cortex
  • Visual cortex in right hemisphere receives input from left-hand side of visual field + vice-versa
  • Cortex contains several areas, processing colour, shape or movement
50
Q

Outline the role of the auditory centre in the brain

A
  • Lies within temporal lobes on both sides of the brain, where the auditory cortex is
  • Auditory pathway begins in cochlea in inner ear (where sound waves are converted to nerve impulses) which travel via auditory nerve to the auditory cortex
  • Stops at brain stem during journey (decodes duration + intensity of a sound) - then the thalamus (relay station)
51
Q

Outline the identification of Broca’s area

A
  • Paul Broca (French neurosurgeon)
  • Patient could understand spoken language but couldn’t speak or express his thoughts in writing
    ^— all such patients had lesions in their left frontal hemisphere
    ^— similar damage to the right did not have the same results
  • Identified a ‘language centre’
52
Q

Outline the role of Broca’s area

A
  • Believed to be critical for speech production
  • Neuroscientists found evidence of activity in this area when people perform cognate tasks that have nothing to do with language
  • Fedorenko et al. (2012) discovered 2 regions of Broca’s area: one involved with language + one involved in responding to many demanding cognitive tasks (e.g. maths)
53
Q

Outline the identification of Wernicke’s area

A
  • Carl Wernicke (German neurologist)
  • Patients could speak but couldn’t understand language
    ^— Wernicke proposed that language involves separate motor and sensory regions located in different cortical regions
54
Q

Outline the role of Wernicke’s area

A
  • Involved in understanding language (in left temporal lobe)
55
Q

What is the motor cortex?

A

Region of the brain responsible for the generation of voluntary motor movements

56
Q

What is the somatosensory cortex?

A

Region of the brain that processes input from sensory receptors in the body that are sensitive to touch

57
Q

What is Broca’s area?

A

An area in the frontal lobe of the brain, usually in the left hemisphere, related to speech production

58
Q

What is Wernicke’s area?

A

An area in the temporal love of the brain important to the comprehension of language

59
Q

Explain what is meant by ‘lateralisation’

A

The fact that some mental processes in the brain are mainly specialised to either the left or right hemisphere

60
Q

Explain what is meant by ‘split-brain research’

A

Research studying individuals who have been subjected to the surgical separation of the two hemispheres of the brain as a result of severing the corpus callosum

61
Q

Explain the nature of lateralisation in the brain

A
  • Lateralisation - two halves of the brain aren’t ‘alike’
  • Each hemisphere has functional specialisations (e.g. language is localised primarily in one half of the brain)
  • e.g. research has found L hemisphere is dominant for language + speech while R specialises in visual-motor tasks
  • Broca - damage to his area in L side caused lang. deficits but not in R side
  • Two hemispheres connected by corpus callosum - how we can talk about things (language in L) that happen in the right hemisphere
62
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

Connecting bundles of nerve fibres

63
Q

Outline the procedure of split-brain research

A
  • Sperry & Gazzaniga (1967) first to study epileptics who had corpus callosum cut as treatment (split-brain patients)
  • Sent visual info to just one hemisphere at a time to study hemispheric lateralisation
  • In theory: info presented to one hemisphere has no way of travelling to the other + can only be processed in one
  • Split-brain patient would fixate on a dot in the centre of a screen while info was present to either L or R field
    ^— then asked to make responses with either left hand (R hem) or right hand (L hem), or verbally (L hem) without being able to see what their hand were doing
64
Q

Outline the procedure of split-brain research

A
  • If dog pic was flashed to right visual field, they would answer correctly
  • If cat pic was flashed to left visual field, they would say they see nothing

Info from L visual field processed by R hemisphere, but it as no language centre (so cannot verbally respond)
^— L hemisphere has a language centre but does not receive info about seeing the cat so cannot say it has seen it

65
Q

What has been learned from split-brain research?

A
66
Q

Explain what is meant by the term ‘plasticity of the brain’

A

The brain’s ability to change and adapt as a result of experience

67
Q

Outline evidence for plasticity in the brain due to life experience

A
  • Boyke et al. (2008) found evidence in 60 year olds taught a new skill - juggling
    ^— found increases in grey matter in the visual cortex (but when practising stopped, these changes were reversed)
  • As people gain new experiences, nerve pathways that are used frequently develop stronger connections - but those rarely used eventually die
  • Also natural decline in cognitive functioning with age that can be attributed to changes in the brain
    ^— researchers looked for ways in which new connections can be made to reverse this effect
68
Q

Outline evidence for plasticity in the brain due to video games

A
  • Kühn et al. (2014) compared control group w/ video game training group that was trained for 2 months for min. 30 mins per day on Super Mario
  • Significant increase in grey matter in various brain areas including the cortex, hippocampus + cerebellum
    ^— this was not evident in the control group
  • Concl. video game training resulted in new synaptic connections in brain areas involved with spatial navigation, strategic planning, working memory + motor performance
69
Q

Outline evidence for plasticity in the brain due to mediation

A
  • Davidson et al. (2004) compared 8 practitioners of Tibetan mediation w/ 10 student volunteers w/ no previous mediation experience
  • Both groups fitted with electrical sensors + asked to meditate for short period
  • Electrodes picked up greater activation of gamma waves in the monks
    ^— students only slight increase
  • Concl. May even have permanent changes, as monks had far more gamma wave activity that control before they started mediating

Gamma waves - coordinate neuron activity

70
Q

Explain what is meant by the term ‘functional recovery’

A

The recovery of abilities and mental processes that have been compromised as a result of brain injury or disease

71
Q

Briefly describe the foundations of functional recovery after trauma

A
  • 1960s - researches studied stroke victims who were able to regain functioning
  • When brain cells are damaged or destroyed, the brain rewires itself over time so some level of function can be regained
  • Event bough some parts of the brain may be damaged/destroyed, other parts can take over the functions that were lost
72
Q

State the two ways the brain is able to functionally recover

A
  • Neuronal unmasking
  • Stem cells
73
Q

Explain and give evidence for neuronal unmasking in functional recovery

A
  • Wall (1977) identified ‘dormant synapses’ in the brain
    ^— synaptic connections hat exist anatomically but their function is blocked
  • Under normal conditions, these synapses may be ineffective as the rate of neural input to them is too low for activation
  • Increasing rate of input to them (e.g. when surrounding area is damaged) can open thissynapses
  • Unmasking dormant synapses can open connections to regions of the brain that are not normally activated, allowing the development of new structures
74
Q

Outline the role of stem cells in functional recovery

A

Stem cells - unspecialised cells which have the potential to become different cell types that carry out different functions

  • Views that stem cells implanted into the brain would directly replace dead or dying cells
  • OR transplanted stem cells secrete growth factors that can ‘rescue’ the injured cells
  • OR transplanted cells form a neural network, linking an uninsured brain site with the damaged region
75
Q

State FOUR ways of studying the brain

A
  • Post-mortem examinations
  • Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
  • Electroencephalogram (EEG)
  • Event-related potentials (ERPs)
76
Q

Outline the nature of post-mortem examinations as a way of studying the brain

A
  • Used to establish underlying neurobiology of a behaviour
    ^— e.g. studying a person who displays behaviour while alive that suggests possible underlying brain damage | when they die, researchers can examine their brains to look for abnormalities that may explain
    ^—— e.g. Broca did so with a patient who displayed speech problems while alive + had a lesion in the area of the brain ‘Broca’s area’
77
Q

Outline the nature of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as a way of studying the brain

A
  • ## Technique for measuring changes in brain activity - detects changes in blood oxygenation and flow that indicate increased neural activity

Psychology (19 decks)

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