Research Methods - Paper 2 / All Papers Flashcards
What is an aim
General expression of what the researcher intends to investigate
What is an operationalised hypothesis
Statement believed to be true - defined and measurable
What are extraneous variables
More difficult to detect on effect - e.g. age, gender time limits
What are confounding variables
Change with the IV e.g. mood, weather, personality
What are demand characteristics
Cue that may reveal the aim of the study and change of participants behaviour
Investigator effects
Effect of behaviour (on outcome)
Randomisation
Change to control for bias
Lottery methods
Standardisation
Same formalised procedure
Pilot study
Small scale trial run. Modify design
Control group
Set comparison
Single and double blind studies
Single - participants unaware
Double - participants and researcher unaware
Empirical methods
Methods of gaining knowledge which rely on direct observation or testing
Objectivity
Measurement of data not affected by the expectations of the researcher
Remove researcher bias
Replicability
Recording procedure carefully in order for another researcher to repeat them and verify the original results
Step by step
Consistency in result when replicated
Falsifiability
The possibility that a statement or hypothesis can be proved wrong by testing
Enhances scientific validity
Paradigm
A typical set of concepts or thought patterns
Shift - major change on worldwide concepts
What are independent groups
One group does one condition - participants randomly allocated
Evaluation on independent groups
+ no order effects
+ not guess aim
- participant variables
- less economical
Repeated measures
Take part in all conditions
Counterbalance to remover order effects
Evaluation of repeated measures
+ participant variables
+ fewer participants needed
- order effects
- p’s guess aim
What is matched pairs?
2 groups - related on participant variables
Evaluation of matched pairs
+ participant variables
+ no order effects
- matching nor perfect
- more participants needed
What is a lab experiment
Extraneous and confounding variables regulated - lab setting
Evaluation of lab experiment
+ EV and CV controlled
+ easily replicated
- lack generalisability
- demand characteristics
What is a field experiment
Natural setting - IV manipulated
Evaluation of a field experiment
+ more natural environment
+ participants unaware
- difficult to control CV and EV
- ethical issues (informed consent)
What is a natural experiment
Where the IV is not manipulated by the researcher it’s naturally occurring
Evaluation of a natural experiment
+ only practical option
+ greater external validity
- only occur rarely
- not randomly allocated
What is a Quasi experiment
Pre-existing differences between people
Evaluation of a quasi experiment
+ high control
+ comparisons
- p’s not randomly allocated
- casual relationship not demonstrated
Ethical issues occur when there is a…
Conflict between the rights and aims of
What is informed consent
Permission given to take part in
What is deception
Misleading / withholding information
Protection form harm
No more risk than everyday
Privacy and confidentiality
Right to control information
What should be given after an experiment has taken place
Debrief and right to withdraw
What is the population
Group the researcher is interested in
What is the sample
Smaller groups from the population
Generalisation
Wether the group is representative
Bias
In certain groups - may be over or under represented
What is random sampling
Equal chance - lottery method
Evaluation of random sampling
+ potentially unbiased
- time-consuming
What is systematic sampling
Set pattern (every nth person)
Evaluation of systematic sampling
+ unbiased
- time and effort
What is stratified sampling
Reflects proportions (strata)
Evaluation of stratified sampling
+ representative
- not perfect
What is Opportunity sampling
Most available - nearby
Evaluation of opportunity sampling
+ quick method
- inevitably biased
What is volunteer sampling
Self selecting, advertise
Evaluation of volunteer sampling
+ participants willing
- volunteer bias
What are correlations
Strength and direction of an association between co-variables
What is a scattergram
One co-variable on the x axis
One co-variable on the y axis
What is a positive correlation
Where they increase together
What is a negative correlation
Where one increased and the other decreases
What is a zero correlation
No relationship
Evaluation of correlations
+ useful starting point
+ relatively economical
- no cause and effecr
- intervening variables
What is an observation
See or listen without asking - assessing
Evaluation of observation
+ capture what people do
- observer bias
What is a naturalistic observation
Where target behaviour which normally occurs
Evaluation of naturalistic observations
+ high external validity
- low control
What is a controlled observation
Some control on variables
Evaluation of controlled observations
+ replicated
- low external validity
What is a covert observation
Participants are unaware
Evaluation on covert observations
+ demand characteristics low
- ethically questionable
What is a overt observation
Participants aware
Evaluation of a overt observation
+ ethically acceptable
- demand characteristics
What are participant observations
Researcher becomes part of a group
Evaluation of participant observation
+ greater insight
- loss of objectivity
What are non - participant observations
The researcher separate from the group
Evaluation of non - participant observations
+ objective
- loss of insight
What are behavioural categories
Broken into categories
Evaluation of behavioural categories
- difficult to make clear
- dustbin categories
Event sampling
Target behaviour recorded when occurs
Evaluation of event sampling
+ useful for infrequent behaviours
- complex behaviour oversimplified
Time sampling
Record all behaviour displayed at regular intervals
Evaluation of time sampling
+ reduce number of observations
- unrepresentative
What are questionnaires
Pre-set list of written questions - assess DV
Evaluation of questionnaires
+ distributes to lots of participants
+ straightforward to analyse
- not always truthful
- response bias
What are interviews
Face to face or online interactions
Structures, unstructured, semi-structured
What are structured interviews
List of pre-determined questions in fixed order
+ replicated
- cannot elaborate
What are unstructured interviews
No set questions
+greater flexibility
- interviewer bias
What are semi-structures interviews
List but ask further questions
How do you design a questionnaire
Avoid Jargon
Double barrelled questions
Leading questions
What are closed questions
Limited choices
+ easier to analyse
- restricted
What are open questions
Provide own answers expressed in words
+ not restricted
- difficult to analyse
How do you design interviews
Standardised list
Quiet team
Neutral questions
Ethics treated in confidence
What is qualitative data
Non numerical data - expressed in words
+ detail
- difficult to analyse
What is quantitative data
Numerical data
+ easy to analyse
- narrower in meaning
What is primary data
‘First hand’ data
+ fits the job
- requires time and effort
What is secondary data
Someone other than the researcher
+ inexpensive
- quality may be poor
What is meta analysis
Combining secondary, calculation of effect size
+ high validity of conclusion
- publication bias (non significant results)
What is the mean
Add all the score, divide by number of scores
+ sensitive measures
- unrepresentative
What is the median
Middle value, ascending order
+ less effected by extreme
- less sensitive
What is the mode
Most frequent or common
+ relevant to categorical data
- over simple measure
What is the range
Difference between highest and lowest value
+ easy
-not account for distribution
What is standard deviation
Average spread around mean
The larger, the more spread the data is
+ more precise
- can be misleading (extreme values)
What is normal distribution
Symmetrical, bell shaped
Most in the middle with few at the ends
Mean median and mode all occupy the same mid-point
What is a skewed distribution
More items at lower or upper
Positive = left
Negative = right
What is a peer review
All aspects are scrutinised by experts. Should be objective and unknown to the researcher
funding allocation
Validation of quality
Improvement and amendments suggested
Evaluation of peer reviews
+ protects quality of published work
- anonymity used to criticise rival research
- publication bias
- ground breaking research buried
What is the significance
Association between two sets of data
What is probability
The likelihood an event will happen if null hypnosis is tru
0.05 accepted level
What is done with the calculated and critical value
Compared
How to find the critical value
Significance, number of participants, one or two tailed
What is the sign test
Difference in related items
Condition B subtracted from condition A plus or minus
Add pluses and add minuses
S value = less frequent sign
What is a type 1 error
Reject the null hypothesis when shouldn’t
What is a type 2 error
Accept the null hypothesis when shouldn’t
What is avoiding
Significance level stricter - reduce type 1 error but increase type 2
Increase sample size to reduce both
What is nominal data
Qualitative values - tallied
Nominated categories
What is ordinal data
Scaled or ranked data
Likert scale
What is interval data
Ranked data with equal intervals
Temperature
What is the significance tests tables
Independent groups»_space; repeated measures»_space; correlation
Nominal - chi-squared»_space; sign test»_space; chi-squared
Ordinal - Mann Whitney»_space; Wilcoxon»_space; spearman’s
Interval - unrelated t»_space; related T»_space; pearsons
CSCMWSURP
Psychology research and the economy - benefit financial
Benefit financial prosperity
- stressed importance father to child, promote flexible working, parents better equipped to contribute to economy
Psychology research and the economy benefit people
1/3 days off cause by mental disorders
Access to therapy and drugs
Manage condition and return to work
What is an abstract
A summary of the study
All major elements
What is an introduction
A literature review
Relevant theories and concepts
The method in review
Detailed enough for replication
Design
Sample
Apparatus
Procedure
Ethics
Results in review
Summary key findings
Descriptive and inferential statistics
Discussion in review
Evaluation the outcome
Relationship to previous results
Limitations
Wider world implications
Referencing
Author
Date
Article
Title
Journal name
Volume
Page numbers
What is a content analysis
Observational
Indirect
Communication
Meaningful units
What is a thematic analysis
Qualitative
Themes rather than word count
Evaluation content analysis
Ethical issues
Flexible
Out of context
Objectivity lacks
