Aggression - Paper 3 Flashcards
What are the neural mechanisms in aggression
The limbic system
Serotonin
What is the limbic system
Papez and Maclean limbic to emotions
The hypothalamus, amygdala and parts of the hippocampus
The role of the amygdala in aggression
The more reactive the amygdala to environmental threats the more aggression
Gospic et al brain scans - lab based game provoked aggression
Benzodiazepine taken before decreased activity
The orbitofrontal cortex and serotonin
Low levels increased aggression - reduces self control and increases impulses
Virkkunen et al lower levels serotonin metabolite in violent impulsive offenders compares with non impulsive offenders
Testosterone in aggression
Regulate social behaviour via influences on brain
More aggressive towards other males at 20 years as testosterone peaks
Dolan et al found positive correlation in offenders with histories of impulsive violent behaviour
Animal studies in testosterone
Castration reduces aggression in many species - injecting testosterone restores aggression (Giammanco et al)
Progesterone in aggression
Low levels link aggression
Negative correlation between progesterone levels and self reported aggression
Evaluation of neural mechanisms in aggression
- non limbic brain structures involved in - orbital frontal cortex regulation and inhibition - more complex
+ research into effects of drugs on serotonin - Berman et al - lab based, giving and receiving electric shocks in response to provocation - Paroxetine gave fewer and less intense than placebo
Biological determinism
Evaluation of hormonal mechanisms in aggression
+ support from research with animals - Giammanco et al review - aggression in male monkeys during mating - castration in rats
- evidence is mixed - Mehta et al dual hormone hypothesis - high testosterone aggression when cortisol low
Gender bias
Genetic factors in aggression - twin studies
50% variance in aggression
Coccaro et al adult male monozygotic and dizygotic - direct physical aggression concordance 50% MZ and 19% DZ
Verbal 28% MZ and 7% DZ
Adoption studies - genetic factors
41% variance in aggressive behaviour
And adopted child and biological parents suggest genetic influences are operating, similarities with adoptive suggest environmental
Rhee et al meta analysis found genetic influences accounted from 41% of variance
MAOA gene - genetic factors
Linked to low serotonin
Production of enzyme monoamine oxidase which regulates serotonin
Low activity variant (MAOA-L) linked to increased aggression
MAOA-L variant - genetic factors - research
‘Warrior gene’ - 56% of New Zealand Māori males - historically ferocious (Lea and Chambers)
Extreme violence in Dutch family - Brunner at al 28 members in violent criminal - low level enzyme
Gene - environment GxE interactions - genetic factors
Frazzetto et al association between antisocial aggression and the MAOA-L gene in adult males but only in significant trauma
No trauma not especially aggressive
Diathesis stress
Evaluation of genetic factors
- twin studies lack validity - share same environment - not same extent in DZ - treated less similarly
+ support for the role of the MAOA gene - low activity associated high aggression - high activity more co-operative
- counter - even with low activity co operatively when other were also - environment.
The ethnological explanation of aggression - adaptive
Beneficial to survival - reduces competition and established dominance
Pettit et al aggression in children at play led to hierarchies - adaptive as benefits
The ethnological explanation of aggression - ritualistic
Lorenz intra species aggression in ritualistic signalling (displaying teeth) - appeasement display - acceptance - no death not threaten species
The ethnological explanation of aggression - IRM
Innate releasing mechanism - inbuilt physiological process or structure
Environmental stimulus activates - triggers release a fixed action pattern
The ethnological explanation of aggression - FAP
A fixed action pattern - pattern of behaviours triggered by an IRM
Lea argues FAP is a relatively unchanging behavioural sequence found universally inevitable course which cannot be altered before completed
Tinbergen procedure - male stickleback and aggression - ethological explanation
Male entering territory in mating sequence of aggressive behaviour - red underbelly triggers IRM to aggressive FAP
Presented male sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of different shapes
Tinbergen findings - male stickleback and aggression - ethological explanation
If model had red underside the stickleback would aggressively display and attack it - but no red no aggression
FAP doesn’t change from one encounter to another - once triggered ran its course
Evaluation of the ethological explanation
+ support from research related to genetics and evolution - genetic evidence string - MAOA-L gene and aggression - twin and adoption - genetically determined
- counterpoint - Nisbett found homicides based on reactive aggression more common in souther US then north - culture override innate influences
- same species aggression not always ritualistic - male chimps killing members of another community - didn’t stop when offering appeasement
Evolutionary explanations of human aggression - anti cuckoldy behaviours
Cuckoldry having to raise another’s offspring - waste of resources - survival of rival gene -
Aggressive male retention strategies prevent partners from straying - adaptive
Evolutionary explanations of human aggression - mate retention strategies
Wilson and Daly
Direct guarding - vigilance over partner behaviour - check who they’ve been seeing
Negative inducements - threats of consequence
Who reported mate retention twice as likely to experience abuse- 73% medical attention - 53% feared for their lives
Evolutionary explanations of human aggression - male bullying
Considered an adaptive form of aggression
Power imbalance - increase chance if survival
Men suggests dominance, acquisition of resources - access more females and minimal threat
Evolutionary explanations of human aggression - female bullying
Within rather than outside a relationship - controlling a partner - secure partners fidelity
Evaluation of evolutionary explanations
+ gender differences - socialisation but some are due to adaptive strategies - physical not adaptive for female with offspring - risk - use verbal aggression retain resource
- cultural differences - not universal - Africa negative attitudes towards aggression - loss of status within community
Biologically determinism - inevitably not out fault - humanistic see as free will - soft determinism may be predisposed but acts depend on other factors
The frustration aggression hypothesis
Frustration always leads to aggression - aggression always the result of frustration
Dollard et al - aggression psychological drive - frustration our attempt to achieve a goal is blocked by an external factor
Frustration creates aggressive drive
Frustration aggression hypothesis - aggressive behaviour cathartic
Expressing the aggressive drive removes the negative emotion - makes further aggression less likely
Frustration aggression hypothesis - aggression may be displaced
Cause of frustration may be
- abstract (government)
- too powerful, risk punishment (teacher low grade)
- unavailable (teacher left)
Deflected onto alternative - weaker and available
Frustration aggression hypothesis - weapon effect
Cues make aggression more likely
LePage et al once students frustrated give fake electric shock when weapon next to them
Geen - frustration aggression
Male university completed jigsaw puzzle
- some puzzle impossible
- ran put of time confederate interfering
- insulted by confederate
Give fake electric shock
Strongest shock insulted then interfered, then impossible
All three more intense than control group
Evaluation of frustration aggression
+ support for displaced aggression - Marcus-Newhall et al meta analysis - aggression human target - provoked participants not retaliate against the original source aggress against innocent target
- may not be cathartic - Bushman vented anger by hitting a punchbag became aggressive rather then less - better people feel after venting the more aggressive they are
- link complex - frustration not always lead to aggression - aggression occur without frustration - many reasons for doing so - limited to some situations
Social learning theory - direct learning
Through operant conditioning - positive and negative reinforcement
E.g. child angrily snatches toys - aggression rewards
Social learning theory - indirect learning
Observational - observe model and consequences of their actions
Vicarious reinforcement
Social learning theories - mediational processes
Attention - retention - reproduction - motivation
Social learning theory - self efficacy
The extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal
Increases each time aggression brings rewards
Social learning theory - Bandura et al
Observed playing with bobo doll - adults aggressive - taken to room with toys
Aggressive model condition imitated behaviour - boys more likely to imitate
Evaluation of social learning theory
+ research support - Poulin et al aggressive boys friends with other aggressive - mutually reinforced through modelling - exposed to aggression and positive consequences
- counterpoint - no similarity between Friedan for reactive aggression - not imitated - consequences unpredictable
- undermines biological factors - an instinct - but earned outcome of nurture - genetic and evolutionary influences - psychological reductionism - ignore nature
Deindividuation
Crows behaviour and aggression - Le Bon lose restraint, self identity and responsibility - less guilt
Reduced sense of personal responsibility - Zimbardo - usually individual lose self awareness, ignore social norms, irrational, impulsive and disinhibited
Anonymity major condition of de-individation - don’t fear retribution unidentifiable
Private self awareness - attention our own feelings reduced - events around
Public self awareness - anonymous and behaviour less likely judged
Deindividuation - Dodd
229 psychology students - anonymous answers - prosocial or antisocial behaviour
39% involved form of antisocial, 26% criminal acts
9% prosocial (helping people)
Evaluation of deindividuation
+ research support - Douglas most aggressive messages posted were hidden identities - common - implicated in self harm and suicide
- counterpoint - Gergen et al - darkened room they do what they want and never meet again - touching and kissing - second study much less touching and kissing - deindividuation not always lead to aggression
- deindividuation normative rather then anti-normative - behave against social norms when we are less aware of our private identity - leads to conformity to group norms - remain sensitive to norms
Institutional aggression - dispositional - importation model
Irwin et al
Irwin et al inmates import subcultures - beliefs, norms and attitudes, learning experiences and personal characteristics
Influence aggression to establish power, status and access to resources
Institutional aggression - dispositional - importation model
DeLisi et al
Juvenile delinquents - childhood trauma, anger, histories of substance abuse and violent behaviour
Negative more likely engage in suicidal activities, sexual misconduct and acts of physical aggression
Institiautional aggression - situational aggression - deprivation model
Clemmer - harsh conditions cause stress - deprived of freedom, material goods. Adaptive solution to deprivation
Psychological factors - freedom, independence
Physical factors - material goods - increase competition
Steiner - predicting aggression - inmate violence common higher proportion of female staff, overcrowding and in protective custody
Evaluation of Institutional aggression - dispositional - importation model
+ research support - Camp et al no sig diff in aggression over two years between low and high security - environment less important then characteristics
- ignore key factors - Dilulio claims ignores prison officers and the way its run - poorly managed have worse violence
Determinism and free will
Evaluation of Institiautional aggression - situational aggression - deprivation model
+ research support - Cunningham et al inmate homicides in Texas linked to deprivations - arguments between cell sharing inmates boundaries crossed
- research contradicting deprivation - predicts lack of heterosexual contact should lead to aggression - Hensley et al studies 2 prisons no reduced aggression in conjugal visits
Importation v deprivation
Media influences - excessive TV
Hours watching TV associated with adult convictions for aggression and violent crimes (Robertson et al)
Watching TV associated reduced social interaction and poorer educational achievement
Link to aggression may be indirect
Media influences - violent film - research
Bandura et al replicated but on a film
Children imitated models behaviour closely demonstrating they social learning Cana operate through media
Media influences - TV/film on aggression
Considered not strong
Meta analysis 200 studies found significant positive correlation between violent tv and anti social behaviour
However accounted from 1-10% of variance in children’s aggressive behaviour, suggesting a minor effect on aggression for TV and film compared with other sources
Media influences - computer games
More powerful effect
- game player active
- directly rewarding
Lab experiment - reaction time task - blasts of white noise at chosen volumes - playing violent games for 10 mins gave higher volumes of white noise
Correlation - public health issue and computer games a risk factor
Evaluation of media influences on aggression
- aggression defined in various ways - violent behaviour, volume of noise, criminal conviction - not all aggression is violence - hard to compare studies
+ however - overcome meta analysis - 136 different definitions increases aggression linked violent computer games - valid method uncovering effect - unsupported conclusions - methodologically weak - meta analysis poor quality studies - correlational - lack external validity - premature conclusions
Desensitisation in aggression
Reduces physiological response - arousal on sympathetic nervous system- repeated viewing effects reduced
Aggression socially acceptable - less empathy for victims
Desensitisation - Weisz et al
Showed film straw dogs
males greater acceptance of rape myths after watching mock rape trial
Less sympathy for victim and less likely find defendant guilty
Disinhibition in aggression
Exposure changes restraint
Antisocial so strong restraint but social approval effects seem minimised
Restraints loosened after exposure
Computer games violence rewarded, consequences minimised or justified
Role of cognitive priming
A script learned about how to behave to aggressive cues
How might play out - Huesmann script stored in memory - automatic process
Songs aggressive lyrics - Fischer et al - derogatory lyrics about women - more negative qualities about women and behaved more aggressively towards female confederate - similar other way round.
Evaluation of desensitisation
+ research support - Krähe et al showed violent and non violent films while measuring arousal - habitual viewers showed lower arousal and gave louder white noise
- cannot explain some aggression - Krähe et al - study did not link media viewing and arousal with provoked aggression - catharsis may explain - violent media safety
Evaluation of disinhibition
+ research support - Berkowitz et al people saw film showing aggression as vengeance gave more shocks - justified - removal social constraints
+ cartoon violence - not learn specific aggressive behaviours - learn aggression acceptable - especially if unpunished
Evaluation of cognitive priming
+ real world application - violent situations depend on interpretation of environmental cues which depend on cognitive scripts - Bushman someone who watches violent media stores aggressive scripts more readily
- confounding variables - violent video games more complex in gameplay so confounding variable - Zendle et al found that when complexity controlled the priming effects disappear
