Aggression - Paper 3

Question 1

What are the neural mechanisms in aggression

Answer 1

The limbic system

Serotonin

Question 2

What is the limbic system

Answer 2

Papez and Maclean limbic to emotions

The hypothalamus, amygdala and parts of the hippocampus

Question 3

The role of the amygdala in aggression

Answer 3

The more reactive the amygdala to environmental threats the more aggression

Gospic et al brain scans - lab based game provoked aggression

Benzodiazepine taken before decreased activity

Question 4

The orbitofrontal cortex and serotonin

Answer 4

Low levels increased aggression - reduces self control and increases impulses

Virkkunen et al lower levels serotonin metabolite in violent impulsive offenders compares with non impulsive offenders

Question 5

Testosterone in aggression

Answer 5

Regulate social behaviour via influences on brain
More aggressive towards other males at 20 years as testosterone peaks

Dolan et al found positive correlation in offenders with histories of impulsive violent behaviour

Question 6

Animal studies in testosterone

Answer 6

Castration reduces aggression in many species - injecting testosterone restores aggression (Giammanco et al)

Question 7

Progesterone in aggression

Answer 7

Low levels link aggression
Negative correlation between progesterone levels and self reported aggression

Question 8

Evaluation of neural mechanisms in aggression

Answer 8

• non limbic brain structures involved in - orbital frontal cortex regulation and inhibition - more complex

+ research into effects of drugs on serotonin - Berman et al - lab based, giving and receiving electric shocks in response to provocation - Paroxetine gave fewer and less intense than placebo

Biological determinism

Question 9

Evaluation of hormonal mechanisms in aggression

Answer 9

+ support from research with animals - Giammanco et al review - aggression in male monkeys during mating - castration in rats

• evidence is mixed - Mehta et al dual hormone hypothesis - high testosterone aggression when cortisol low

Gender bias

Question 10

Genetic factors in aggression - twin studies

Answer 10

50% variance in aggression

Coccaro et al adult male monozygotic and dizygotic - direct physical aggression concordance 50% MZ and 19% DZ
Verbal 28% MZ and 7% DZ

Question 11

Adoption studies - genetic factors

Answer 11

41% variance in aggressive behaviour

And adopted child and biological parents suggest genetic influences are operating, similarities with adoptive suggest environmental

Rhee et al meta analysis found genetic influences accounted from 41% of variance

Question 12

MAOA gene - genetic factors

Answer 12

Linked to low serotonin

Production of enzyme monoamine oxidase which regulates serotonin

Low activity variant (MAOA-L) linked to increased aggression

Question 13

MAOA-L variant - genetic factors - research

Answer 13

‘Warrior gene’ - 56% of New Zealand Māori males - historically ferocious (Lea and Chambers)

Extreme violence in Dutch family - Brunner at al 28 members in violent criminal - low level enzyme

Question 14

Gene - environment GxE interactions - genetic factors

Answer 14

Frazzetto et al association between antisocial aggression and the MAOA-L gene in adult males but only in significant trauma

No trauma not especially aggressive

Diathesis stress

Question 15

Evaluation of genetic factors

Answer 15

• twin studies lack validity - share same environment - not same extent in DZ - treated less similarly

+ support for the role of the MAOA gene - low activity associated high aggression - high activity more co-operative
- counter - even with low activity co operatively when other were also - environment.

Question 16

The ethnological explanation of aggression - adaptive

Answer 16

Beneficial to survival - reduces competition and established dominance

Pettit et al aggression in children at play led to hierarchies - adaptive as benefits

Question 17

The ethnological explanation of aggression - ritualistic

Answer 17

Lorenz intra species aggression in ritualistic signalling (displaying teeth) - appeasement display - acceptance - no death not threaten species

Question 18

The ethnological explanation of aggression - IRM

Answer 18

Innate releasing mechanism - inbuilt physiological process or structure

Environmental stimulus activates - triggers release a fixed action pattern

Question 19

The ethnological explanation of aggression - FAP

Answer 19

A fixed action pattern - pattern of behaviours triggered by an IRM

Lea argues FAP is a relatively unchanging behavioural sequence found universally inevitable course which cannot be altered before completed

Question 20

Tinbergen procedure - male stickleback and aggression - ethological explanation

Answer 20

Male entering territory in mating sequence of aggressive behaviour - red underbelly triggers IRM to aggressive FAP

Presented male sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of different shapes

Question 21

Tinbergen findings - male stickleback and aggression - ethological explanation

Answer 21

If model had red underside the stickleback would aggressively display and attack it - but no red no aggression

FAP doesn’t change from one encounter to another - once triggered ran its course

Question 22

Evaluation of the ethological explanation

Answer 22

+ support from research related to genetics and evolution - genetic evidence string - MAOA-L gene and aggression - twin and adoption - genetically determined
- counterpoint - Nisbett found homicides based on reactive aggression more common in souther US then north - culture override innate influences

• same species aggression not always ritualistic - male chimps killing members of another community - didn’t stop when offering appeasement

Question 23

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression - anti cuckoldy behaviours

Answer 23

Cuckoldry having to raise another’s offspring - waste of resources - survival of rival gene -

Aggressive male retention strategies prevent partners from straying - adaptive

Question 24

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression - mate retention strategies

Answer 24

Wilson and Daly

Direct guarding - vigilance over partner behaviour - check who they’ve been seeing

Negative inducements - threats of consequence

Who reported mate retention twice as likely to experience abuse- 73% medical attention - 53% feared for their lives

Question 25

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression - male bullying

Answer 25

Considered an adaptive form of aggression

Power imbalance - increase chance if survival

Men suggests dominance, acquisition of resources - access more females and minimal threat

Question 26

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression - female bullying

Answer 26

Within rather than outside a relationship - controlling a partner - secure partners fidelity

Question 27

Evaluation of evolutionary explanations

Answer 27

+ gender differences - socialisation but some are due to adaptive strategies - physical not adaptive for female with offspring - risk - use verbal aggression retain resource

• cultural differences - not universal - Africa negative attitudes towards aggression - loss of status within community

Biologically determinism - inevitably not out fault - humanistic see as free will - soft determinism may be predisposed but acts depend on other factors

Question 28

The frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 28

Frustration always leads to aggression - aggression always the result of frustration

Dollard et al - aggression psychological drive - frustration our attempt to achieve a goal is blocked by an external factor

Frustration creates aggressive drive

Question 29

Frustration aggression hypothesis - aggressive behaviour cathartic

Answer 29

Expressing the aggressive drive removes the negative emotion - makes further aggression less likely

Question 30

Frustration aggression hypothesis - aggression may be displaced

Answer 30

Cause of frustration may be
- abstract (government)
- too powerful, risk punishment (teacher low grade)
- unavailable (teacher left)

Deflected onto alternative - weaker and available

Question 31

Frustration aggression hypothesis - weapon effect

Answer 31

Cues make aggression more likely

LePage et al once students frustrated give fake electric shock when weapon next to them

Question 32

Geen - frustration aggression

Answer 32

Male university completed jigsaw puzzle
- some puzzle impossible
- ran put of time confederate interfering
- insulted by confederate
Give fake electric shock

Strongest shock insulted then interfered, then impossible

All three more intense than control group

Question 33

Evaluation of frustration aggression

Answer 33

+ support for displaced aggression - Marcus-Newhall et al meta analysis - aggression human target - provoked participants not retaliate against the original source aggress against innocent target

• may not be cathartic - Bushman vented anger by hitting a punchbag became aggressive rather then less - better people feel after venting the more aggressive they are
• link complex - frustration not always lead to aggression - aggression occur without frustration - many reasons for doing so - limited to some situations

Question 34

Social learning theory - direct learning

Answer 34

Through operant conditioning - positive and negative reinforcement

E.g. child angrily snatches toys - aggression rewards

Question 35

Social learning theory - indirect learning

Answer 35

Observational - observe model and consequences of their actions

Vicarious reinforcement

Question 36

Social learning theories - mediational processes

Answer 36

Attention - retention - reproduction - motivation

Question 37

Social learning theory - self efficacy

Answer 37

The extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal

Increases each time aggression brings rewards

Question 38

Social learning theory - Bandura et al

Answer 38

Observed playing with bobo doll - adults aggressive - taken to room with toys

Aggressive model condition imitated behaviour - boys more likely to imitate

Question 39

Evaluation of social learning theory

Answer 39

+ research support - Poulin et al aggressive boys friends with other aggressive - mutually reinforced through modelling - exposed to aggression and positive consequences
- counterpoint - no similarity between Friedan for reactive aggression - not imitated - consequences unpredictable

• undermines biological factors - an instinct - but earned outcome of nurture - genetic and evolutionary influences - psychological reductionism - ignore nature

Question 40

Deindividuation

Answer 40

Crows behaviour and aggression - Le Bon lose restraint, self identity and responsibility - less guilt

Reduced sense of personal responsibility - Zimbardo - usually individual lose self awareness, ignore social norms, irrational, impulsive and disinhibited

Anonymity major condition of de-individation - don’t fear retribution unidentifiable

Private self awareness - attention our own feelings reduced - events around

Public self awareness - anonymous and behaviour less likely judged

Question 41

Deindividuation - Dodd

Answer 41

229 psychology students - anonymous answers - prosocial or antisocial behaviour

39% involved form of antisocial, 26% criminal acts
9% prosocial (helping people)

Question 42

Evaluation of deindividuation

Answer 42

+ research support - Douglas most aggressive messages posted were hidden identities - common - implicated in self harm and suicide
- counterpoint - Gergen et al - darkened room they do what they want and never meet again - touching and kissing - second study much less touching and kissing - deindividuation not always lead to aggression

• deindividuation normative rather then anti-normative - behave against social norms when we are less aware of our private identity - leads to conformity to group norms - remain sensitive to norms

Question 43

Institutional aggression - dispositional - importation model

Irwin et al

Answer 43

Irwin et al inmates import subcultures - beliefs, norms and attitudes, learning experiences and personal characteristics
Influence aggression to establish power, status and access to resources

Question 44

Institutional aggression - dispositional - importation model

DeLisi et al

Answer 44

Juvenile delinquents - childhood trauma, anger, histories of substance abuse and violent behaviour

Negative more likely engage in suicidal activities, sexual misconduct and acts of physical aggression

Question 45

Institiautional aggression - situational aggression - deprivation model

Answer 45

Clemmer - harsh conditions cause stress - deprived of freedom, material goods. Adaptive solution to deprivation

Psychological factors - freedom, independence
Physical factors - material goods - increase competition

Steiner - predicting aggression - inmate violence common higher proportion of female staff, overcrowding and in protective custody

Question 46

Evaluation of Institutional aggression - dispositional - importation model

Answer 46

+ research support - Camp et al no sig diff in aggression over two years between low and high security - environment less important then characteristics

• ignore key factors - Dilulio claims ignores prison officers and the way its run - poorly managed have worse violence

Determinism and free will

Question 47

Evaluation of Institiautional aggression - situational aggression - deprivation model

Answer 47

+ research support - Cunningham et al inmate homicides in Texas linked to deprivations - arguments between cell sharing inmates boundaries crossed

• research contradicting deprivation - predicts lack of heterosexual contact should lead to aggression - Hensley et al studies 2 prisons no reduced aggression in conjugal visits

Importation v deprivation

Question 48

Media influences - excessive TV

Answer 48

Hours watching TV associated with adult convictions for aggression and violent crimes (Robertson et al)

Watching TV associated reduced social interaction and poorer educational achievement

Link to aggression may be indirect

Question 49

Media influences - violent film - research

Answer 49

Bandura et al replicated but on a film

Children imitated models behaviour closely demonstrating they social learning Cana operate through media

Question 50

Media influences - TV/film on aggression

Answer 50

Considered not strong
Meta analysis 200 studies found significant positive correlation between violent tv and anti social behaviour

However accounted from 1-10% of variance in children’s aggressive behaviour, suggesting a minor effect on aggression for TV and film compared with other sources

Question 51

Media influences - computer games

Answer 51

More powerful effect
- game player active
- directly rewarding

Lab experiment - reaction time task - blasts of white noise at chosen volumes - playing violent games for 10 mins gave higher volumes of white noise

Correlation - public health issue and computer games a risk factor

Question 52

Evaluation of media influences on aggression

Answer 52

• aggression defined in various ways - violent behaviour, volume of noise, criminal conviction - not all aggression is violence - hard to compare studies
  + however - overcome meta analysis - 136 different definitions increases aggression linked violent computer games - valid method uncovering effect
• unsupported conclusions - methodologically weak - meta analysis poor quality studies - correlational - lack external validity - premature conclusions

Question 53

Desensitisation in aggression

Answer 53

Reduces physiological response - arousal on sympathetic nervous system- repeated viewing effects reduced

Aggression socially acceptable - less empathy for victims

Question 54

Desensitisation - Weisz et al

Answer 54

Showed film straw dogs
males greater acceptance of rape myths after watching mock rape trial
Less sympathy for victim and less likely find defendant guilty

Question 55

Disinhibition in aggression

Answer 55

Exposure changes restraint

Antisocial so strong restraint but social approval effects seem minimised

Restraints loosened after exposure

Computer games violence rewarded, consequences minimised or justified

Question 56

Role of cognitive priming

Answer 56

A script learned about how to behave to aggressive cues

How might play out - Huesmann script stored in memory - automatic process

Songs aggressive lyrics - Fischer et al - derogatory lyrics about women - more negative qualities about women and behaved more aggressively towards female confederate - similar other way round.

Question 57

Evaluation of desensitisation

Answer 57

+ research support - Krähe et al showed violent and non violent films while measuring arousal - habitual viewers showed lower arousal and gave louder white noise

• cannot explain some aggression - Krähe et al - study did not link media viewing and arousal with provoked aggression - catharsis may explain - violent media safety

Question 58

Evaluation of disinhibition

Answer 58

+ research support - Berkowitz et al people saw film showing aggression as vengeance gave more shocks - justified - removal social constraints

+ cartoon violence - not learn specific aggressive behaviours - learn aggression acceptable - especially if unpunished

Question 59

Evaluation of cognitive priming

Answer 59

+ real world application - violent situations depend on interpretation of environmental cues which depend on cognitive scripts - Bushman someone who watches violent media stores aggressive scripts more readily

• confounding variables - violent video games more complex in gameplay so confounding variable - Zendle et al found that when complexity controlled the priming effects disappear