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Psychology AQA > Relationships - Paper 3 > Flashcards

Relationships - Paper 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is sexual selection

A

Any genes which are advantageous for survival and nature selected. Promote successful reproduction

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2
Q

What is anisogamy

A

The difference between male and female sex cells. Male (sperm) plentiful whereas female are expensive.

Fertile females are rarer resource

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3
Q

Inter-sexual selection

A

Selection of mates between sexes

Female - quality over quantity - investment time, commitment - provide resources

Impact - attributes passed on - e.g. height, runaway process constantly taller males

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4
Q

Intra sexual selection

A

Selection of mates within sexes

Male strategy - quantity over quality - traits contribute to victory

Physical consequences - bigger win competition

Behavioural consequences - aggressiveness

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5
Q

Evaluate evolutionary explanations for parter preferences

A

+ research support inter - Clark et al - students, no females agreed to have sex but 75% males agreed
- counter - Buss et al - oversimplistic one strategy adaptive for one and one another - both seek long term

+ Buss et al intra - 10,000 adults, important preferences, females resources, males physical attractiveness

  • social and cultural influences - women work so don’t need resources
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6
Q

What is self - disclosure

A

Revealing intimate information to another person.

Most people afraid to disclose too much too soon

Important role in developing a relationship beyond initial attraction

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7
Q

What is social penetration theory (SPT)

A

Altman and Taylor gradual process of revealing inner self

Gain trust

Reciprocate and reveal personal information

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8
Q

SPT - Penetration

A

Leads to development - increasingly disclose more information as penetrate

Depenetration how dissatisfied partners self disclose less as they disengage

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9
Q

SPT - Breadth

A

Narrow to begin with

Too much info is revealed may be off-putting and one partner may quit the relationship

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10
Q

SPT - depth

A

Develops more layers are gradually revealed

Reveal more intimate info including painful memories

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11
Q

Reciprocity of self disclosure

A

Shaver et al - received sensitively by other partner. Further self disclosure

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12
Q

Evaluation of self disclosure

A

+ research support - Sprecher et al - strong correlations between satisfaction and self disclosure - more committed
- correlation not causation - could be more time or satisfied disclose

  • culture bias - Tang et al - US more than China - no satisfaction difference - not generalisable
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13
Q

Explaining the importance of attractiveness symmetry

A

Shackelford et al - symmetrical face more attractive - genetic fitness can’t be faked - evolutionary explanation

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14
Q

Baby face as attractive

A

Neotenous feature thought to trigger protective and caring instincts, formation of attachment in infancy

Evolutionary - naturally selected

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15
Q

Halo effect describes how physical is generalised

A

Preconceived ideas about the attributes of physical attractive people. All other attributes are positive

Dion et al physically attractive people are consistently rates as kind, strong and successful compared to unattractiveness

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16
Q

Walster et al - matching hypothesis

A

Choose partners who match us in attractiveness

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17
Q

Walster et al - matching hypothesis procedure

A

Computer dance - students rated on physical attractiveness by observers who completed questionnaires

Told data used to pair partners, but in fact randomly paired

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18
Q

Walster et al - matching hypothesis - findings

A

Physically attractive partners liked the most and more likely asked on a date

Berscheid et al replicated and chose partner similar attractiveness

Avoid rejection by physically attractive

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19
Q

Evaluation of physical attractiveness

A

+ research support halo - Palmer et al - attractive rated more politically knowledgable and competent - dangers for democracy.

  • research doesn’t support matching hypothesis - Taylor et al - online dating activity logs - people sought dates were more physically attractive than themselves
    + counter - Feingold’s meta analysis - correlation in ratings of physical attractiveness between romantic partners
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20
Q

What is filter theory

A

Fields of available and field of desirable

Kerckhoff and Davis

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21
Q

The first filter - social demography

A

Factors that influence chances of meeting

Geographical location and social class

Homogamy - partner similar to you

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22
Q

The 2nd filter - similarity in attitudes

A

Sharing belief and values - agreeing

Law of attraction - Byrne mutual attraction

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23
Q

The 3rd filter - complementarity

A

Partner meet other needs - complement

24
Q

Evaluation of filter theory

A

+ Support from Kerckhoff and Davis - dating couples questionnaire, closeness linked to similarity of values, complementarity more important in long lasting
- counter - not replicated - social changes but partner more than 18 months must be committed, lack validity

  • complementarity doesn’t always predict satisfaction - lesbian Nero satisfied when both dominant
25
Q

What is social exchange theory

A

It assumes that relationships are guided by the minimax principle.

Thibault and Kelley - economics - satisfaction in terms of profit

Profitable continue unprofitable fail

26
Q

What is the nature of costs and rewards

A

Cost include time or stress

Rewards include sex, praise or companionship

Opportunity cost - investment as cost elsewhere

27
Q

The comparison level - SET

A

Comparison level measure profit - reward level we believe we deserve

28
Q

Comparison level for alternatives - SET

A

Consider wether er might gain more rewards and endure fewer costs in different

Duck suggests it depends on current relationship

29
Q

The four stages of relationships - SET

A
  1. Sampling stage involves exploring rewards and costs by experimenting
  2. Bargaining stage start where negotiate around costs and rewards
  3. Commitment stage relationships become more stable
  4. Institutionalisation stage partners become settled - norms established
30
Q

Evaluation of social exchange theory

A
  • concepts are vague - rewards and costs are subjective and hard to define - comparison levels problematic

+ research support - Kurdeck - interview homo and hetro - committed had most rewards and fewer costs - concepts independent of each other - validity
- counter - ignore role of equity - not balance of rewards and costs but partners perception that this is fair - limited

31
Q

What is equity theory

A

Most people have a need for equity - SET suggest partners aim to maximise rewards and minimise costs.

Walster eta l equity is more important where both partners level of profit should be the same

32
Q

Underbenefitting and overbenefitting

A

Lead to dissatisfaction

Under least satisfied and feelings evident in anger and resentment

Over less dissatisfied but is still likely feel discomfort or shame

33
Q

Equity is about fairness of the ratios

A

It’s not the size or amount of the reward and cost that matters but ratio

34
Q

What are the consequences of inequity

A

Impacts negatively - positive correlation between

Changes happen overtime - start contribute more

35
Q

How to deal with inequity

A

Underbenefitting partner - more equitable if salvageable

Change cognitive rather than behavioural - revise their perceptions

What was perceived as cost can be accepted as norm

36
Q

Evaluation of equity theory

A

+ research support - Utne et al - survey recently married - more than 2 years before marrying - equitable more satisfied
- counter - Berg et al - equity not distinguish between relationships which ended than continued - other more important.

  • culture bound - individualist more satisfied when equitable - collectivist more when overbenefitting
37
Q

Rusbult’s model - the investment model

A

An extension of SET - A satisfying relationship where getting more out of relationship than expected.

38
Q

Commitment - Rusbult’s model

A

3 factors

  1. Satisfaction - extent the rewards as felt
  2. Comparison with alternatives - judgement about wether a relationship with different partner would increase rewards or costs
  3. Investment - resources associated which would be lost if ended
39
Q

Intrinsic and extrinsic investment - Rusbult’s

A

Intrinsic - resource directly into the relationship

Extrinsic - investments that previously didn’t feature in the relationship

40
Q

Commitment determined by (Rusbult’s)

A

Satisfaction + alternatives + investment

High satisfaction, alternatives less attractive, size of investment increasing

41
Q

Satisfaction v commitment - Rusbult’s

A

Commitment main factor causes to stay in romantic relationship, satisfaction contributes to commitment

42
Q

Relationship maintenance mechanisms - Rusbult’s

A
  • promoting their relationship
  • putting their partners interest first
  • forgiving them for any serious transgression
43
Q

Evaluation of Rusbult’s model

A

+ research support - meta analysis - satisfaction, CLalt, and investment predicted commitment - stability and longevity - across cultures and homosexual - universally important

+ why people stay in abusive relationship - fewer alternatives and greater investment - go back - satisfaction on own

  • oversimplifies investment - more to invest than just resources - future plans motivate to commit - limited
44
Q

Ducks phase model?

A

Ending of relationship is not a one off event - process 4 distinct phases

Each phase has a threshold

45
Q

The 4 phases of Duck’s model

A

Intra-psychic phase

Dyadic phase

Social phase

Grave dressing phase

46
Q

What is the intra-psychic phase - Ducks

A

Threshold - ‘I can’t stand you’ - something has to change

Dissatisfied

Keep to themselves but share with trusted friend - weighing up pros and cons

47
Q

Dyadic phase - Ducks

A

Threshold - ‘I would be justified in withdrawing’

Partner concludes justified ending - discuss partner - equity, commitment

Ironically self disclosure more frequent as feel reveal true feelings

48
Q

Social phase - Ducks

A

Threshold - ‘I mean it’

Support from joint friends

Friends choose a side or go between

News public, place of no return

49
Q

Grave dressing phase - Ducks

A

Threshold - ‘it’s now inevitable’

Prepare for wider consumption

Ensure that the storyteller judged favourably

Final threshold - new life

50
Q

Evaluation of Ducks phase model

A

+ application real world - some repair might be more effective at one stage - communication dyadic - supportive insight

  • model incomplete - resurrection - apply what previously learned - complexity of breakdown and dynamic nature
  • early phases less well explained - report not be accurate - first longer ago so distorted
51
Q

Virtual relationships - self disclosure

A

Self disclosure different

Reduced cues theory - less effective lack nonverbal cues - deindividuation - blunt and aggressive

Hyper personal model - quicker in virtual - sender control - receives feedback reinforce self presentation

Anonymity important

52
Q

Effects of absence of gating in virtual relationships

A

Gate = obstacles in face to face

Absence causes true self but untrue identities

53
Q

Evaluation of virtual relationships and social media

A

+ support for absence of gating in virtual - McKenna et al - shy and socially anxious - 71% online mroe than 2 years (49% offline)

  • lack support for reduced cues - not absent but different - intimate as take time - acronyms, emoticons and emojis effective substitute
  • lack research for hyper personal model - Ruppel et al meta analysis - compared frequency, breadth and depth self disclosure - experimental no sig diff
54
Q

What are the levels of parasocial relationships

A

The celebrity attitude scale - Maltby et al

  1. Entertainment social - lowest
  2. Intense personal - personally involved
  3. Borderline pathological - fantasies uncontrollable and behaviour extreme
55
Q

The absorption addiction model - parasocial

A

McCutcheon - make up personal deficiencies
Escape mundane lives
Intense personal from stressful event

Absorption - fulfilment in celebrity worship

Addiction - increase dose of involvement to gain satisfaction

56
Q

Attachment theory explanation of parasocial

A

Early attachment problems - Bowlby - early difficulties - preference parasocial

Insecure attachment - resistant = unfulfilled needs met and no threat of rejection avoidant = avoid pain of rejection

57
Q

Evaluation os parasocial relationships

A
  • causation v correlation - studies association - valuable for insight links but caution

+ attachment theory applied universally - all cultures

+ research absorption addiction - Maltby et al - female poor body image - eating disorder - correlation

+ levels approach research - higher levels have high anxiety in intimate

Psychology AQA (11 decks)

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