Memory - Paper 1 Flashcards
Outline the meaning of short term memory (STM)
Capacity of the brain to hold a small amount of information for a short period of time.
5-9 items
18-30 seconds
Primarily acoustic
Outline the meaning of long term memory (LTM)
Permanent memory storage.
Capacity unlimited
Duration a few minutes to a lifetime
Primarily semantic
Describe the meaning of capacity
Amount of information that can be stored in memory at any one time
Miller found STM has capacity of 7+- 2
LTM potentially unlimited
Describe the meaning of duration
The length of time information can be held
Peterson and Peterson STM duration for roughly 30 seconds
Bahrick found LTM unlimited duration
Describe the meaning of coding
The format in which information is stored
STM acoustically
LTM semantically (meaning)
Outline Jacobs research on capacity
Jacobs measured digit span
Sequence of digits then recall them out loud in correct order
Increased by one each time until participant can no longer recall
Mean span - 9.3 numbers, 7.3 letters
Evaluate Jacobs research on capacity
+ Been replicated
- old study 1887 - poor control, participants been distracted
+ results supported by further research supporting validity
Evaluate Millers research on capacity
- based on prevalence of seven in human evolution
+ overestimated. Cowan suggest 4 chunks
Evaluate research on duration of STM -
- Meaningless stimuli material artificial, nonsense trigrams
- lack external validity
+ forgetting can be explained - spontaneous decay - no rehearsal. New information pushed out old
Describe research into duration of STM
Peterson et al
Consonant syllables
3 digit number count back from
3 seconds - 80%
18 seconds - 3%
Describe research into duration of LTM
Bahrick
Yearbook photos
17 to 74 recognition - 90% after 15 years, 70% after 48
Free recall - 60% after 15, 30% after 48
Evaluate research in the duration of LTM
+ high external validity - real life memories
- hard to control confounding variables - looked and rehearsed photos over the years
Describe research into coding
Baddeley
Acoustically and semantically similar words
Immediate recall worse with acoustically similar words
Recall after 20 minutes worse with semantically similar words
Evaluate research into coding
+ identified two memory stores
- artificial stimuli
Key features of the multi store model of memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin
Three stores linked together by processing
Enviromental stimuli»_space; sensory register»_space; attention»_space; STM»_space; response / prolonged rehearsal»_space; LTM
Outline the sensory register (MSM)
Stimulus from environment passes into register
(Sights, sounds, smells)
Echoic memory (auditory), Iconic memory (visual), Tactile memory (touch), Olfactory memory (smell), Gustatory memory (taste)
Duration less than a second
Capacity high
Pay attention for information to pass through
How is information transferred from STM to LTM
Maintenance rehearsal - keep in STM
Prolonged rehearsal- transfer LTM
How are memories recalled in MSM
Transferred back to STM by retrieval
Evaluate the MSM
+ supporting research - Baddely mix similar words STM and similar meaning LTM. Memory stores separate and independent
- evidence more than one type STM. Patient KF amnesia. Recall much better when he read the digits. One visual and one auditory
- prolonged rehearsal not needed for STM - LTM transfer - limited explanation
Outline the episodic memory of the LTM store
Stores events
Complex
Events time stamped
Involve several elements - conscious effort to recall them
Outline the semantic memory of the LTM store
Stores out knowledge of the word
Not time stamped
Less personal - knowledge everyone shares
Outline the procedural memory of LTM
Actions and skills
How to do things
Recall unconscious
Hard explains actions
Evaluate types of LTM
+ case study evidence - Clive wearing - lost episodic
- conflicting findings - poor agreement on location
+ helping with memory problems - specific treatments
Outline the key features of the working memory model
Baddeley and Hitch
STM organisation
Centeral executive, episodic buffer,
visuospatial Sketchpad ( visual cache, inner scribe)
Phonological loop (articulatory process, phonological store)
Outline the key features of the central executive
Monitors incoming data
Allocates slave systems to tasks
Very limited storage capacity
Coding flexible
Outline the key features of phonological loop
Deals with auditory information
Articulatory process allows maintenance
Capacity 2 seconds worth of what you can say
Coding acoustic
Outline key features of the visuospatial Sketchpad
Stores visual information
Capacity 3 to 4 objects
Outline the key features of the episodic buffer
Added later
Temporary store
Maintains sense of time sequencing
Links to LTM
Evaluate the working memory model
+ support from clinical evidence - patient KF - auditory poor
+ dual task studies - 2 visual tasks at same time. Than visual and verbal easier
- dual task support - highly controlled and artificial, question validity of model
Describe interference theory
Forgetting occurs when can’t gain access to stored memories
Two pieces of information conflict
Worse when memories similar
What is proactive interference?
When older memories disrupts newer memories
What is retroactive interference?
Newer disrupts older ones
Describe research into the effects of similarity on interference
McGeoch and McDonald
List of words to 100% accuracy
Then given new list, varied degree of similarity
More similar = worst recall
Interference strongest when memories similar
Evaluate interference
+ support in real world situations - Baddeley and Hitch rugby players. Played had worst recall
- overcome using cues - temporary lost - not predicted
- I like everyday forgetting - recall much later - validity issues
Describe the Johnson and Scott study on anxiety
Sat in waiting room
- low anxiety condition - casual conversation - holding pen grease on hands
- high anxiety condition - heated argument, sound breaking glass, holding knife covered in blood
Pick man from photos
What are the findings of Johnson and Scott
49% accuracy in low
37% high
Identify tunnel theory of memory. Weapon focus as result of anxiety
Describe the Yuille and Cutshall study on anxiety
Actual crime - shop owner shot
Witnesses taken part in
Interview 4-5 months after
Witness rate stress
Findings of Yuille and Cutshall
Little change after 5 months
Higher stress level about 88% accurate compares to 75%
Explain contradictory findings of anxiety
Inverted U theory - Dodson et al - relationship between performance and stress is curvilinear
Deffenbacher review 21 studies - lower level of anxiety produce lower recall.
Evaluate research into eyewitness testimony and anxiety
- anxiety may not be relevant to weapon focus. Not sue to anxiousness but surprise
+ supporting evidence for negative effects. Valentine et al - heart rate - London dungeon
+ supporting evidence for positive effects - Christianson et al - bank robbery - 75% accuracy
Explain ethical issues concerned with research into eyewitness testimony - anxiety
Creating anxiety my subject people to psychological harm
What does eyewitness testimony mean?
The ability of people to remember the details of events which they themselves observed
What are leading questions?
Suggest a certain answer because of the way it has been phrased
What is post event discussion?
Witnesses discuss what they have experiences. Affecting the accuracy of recall
Describe Loftus and Palmer’s study
45 students watched film of accident
Answer questions about speed
5 groups each given a different verb e.g. contacted, smashed
What were the findings of Loftus and Palmer’s study
Contacted produced mean of 31.8 mph
Smashed produced mean of 40.5 mph
Why do leading questions affect recall?
Response bias explanation - no enduring effect on memory only answer given
Substitution explanation - interfere, distorting accuracy
Describe Gabbert et al - post event discussion
Paired participants watched video of same crime
Each see elements others could not
Discuss before completing test of recall
What are the findings of Gabbert et al’s study
71% wrongly recalled aspects
Control group - no discussion, no errors
Why does post event information affect recall
Memory contamination - mix info
Memory conformity - go along to win social approval or believe others are right
Evaluation of eyewitness testimony - misleading information
+ real world application - CJS
- challenging evidence - Sutherland more focused when asked leading questions
- demand characteristics - lab studies - high control
What is retrieval failure?
Lack of cues can cause retrieval failure. Cues useful when both the dame for encoding and retrieval
Meaningful links
Describe Godden and Baddeley’s context experiment
Deep sea divers learned new word list on land or in sea and recalled wither on land or in sea
40% lower in mismatched context
Describe Goodwin - state experiment
Participants learned list of words on or off alcohol
Recall significantly worse in mismatched cues
Evaluate retrieval failure
+ real world application - strategies used to improve recall
+ supporting evidence - occur everyday life and labs
- context effects vary in recall and recognition - no context depending effect. Limited explanation.
Eyewitness testimony - the cognitive interview
- Report everything - include every detail
- Reinstate context - return to crime scene in mind
- Reverse order - recalled in different order prevent dishonesty
- Change perspective - recall from other peoples perspective
Explain the enhanced cognitive interview
Fisher et al
Focus on social dynamics of interactions
Reduce anxiety, minimise distractions
Ask open ended questions
Evaluate eyewitness testimony - cognitive interview
+ research support for effectiveness - meta analysis 41% more correct information
- some elements more useful than other - cast doubt on credibility
- time consuming - special training
