research methods Flashcards
aim
broad statement of what the researcher intends to investigate
objectives
more sepecific and measurable steps the researcher will take to acheive the aim
hypothesis
informed guess to what they think will be the outcome
research questions
clear focused question or aim that the reseach will answer
operisationalism
breaking down te hypothesis or research aim
pilot study
is a small scale version of the main research (a dress rehearsal)
* they are useful to identify problems in the research design
* sociologists can save time and money in the long run by identifying any problems with the sampling technique
sampling
is the way in which the researcher recruits people that take part in the study by:
1. considering the target population
2. use a sampling frame
3. the sampling method
sampling frame
a list of people from which the sample may be drawn.
what are the types of sampling methods
- systematic
- stratified
- quota
- snowball
- purposive
- volenteer
systematic sampling
randomly choosing a number anf selecting every nth name from the sampling frame
stratified sampling
dividing the research population into different sampling frames and people are sampled from each frame
quota sampling
researcher chooses how many of each catagory should be included in the sample
snowball sampling
one contact will recruit other contacts to get involved
purposive sampling
researchers choose individuals that fit the nature of the reseach- choosing a particular group or place
volenteer sampling
making the most of situations/opportunities the research population is likely to be found
advantages of systematic sampling
- everyone has the same chance
- reliable
- no researcher bias
- preferred by positivists becuase of its scientific nature
disadvantages of systematic sampling
- time consuming (lowers representitiveness and genderalisabilty)
- sampling frame wont alwaysd provide useful information so can be bias
- can lack representitveness if a greater number of one type of person is picked out.
advantages of stratified sampling
- can ensure that each group is represented
- not biased (representiviveness)
- preferred by positivists
- reliable
disadvantages of stratified sampling
- time consuming
- people may pull out (lowers representitiveness and generalisability)
- sampling frame may not give specific groups to involve
- if come groups have a large number of people, then they are more likely to be chosen/bias
advantages of quota sampling
- useful when theres no sampling frame
- more representitive than other non-random samples
- targets a range of groups
disadvantages of quota sampling
- researcher may be bias towards a certain group (lowers representitiveness)
- no sampling frame
- less scientific
- more difficult to repeat
- numbers needed may not be representitaive of the target population
advantages of snowball sampling
- useful when theres no sampling frame
- more representitive
- good for groups with difficult access
- easy if one person acts as a gatekeeper- allows access and can build a rapport (validity)
disadvantages of snowball sampling
- not representitive- no sampling frame
- biased and subjective
advantages of volenteer sampling
- useful when theres no sampling frame
- good when theres a specific type of person needed (representitive)
- easy/quick to get a large sample
disadvantages of volenteer sampling
- not representitive- no sampling frame
- sample will be made up of the same type of people (lowers representitiveness)
What type of data consists of textual information with lots of detail?
Qualitative research
Qualitative research focuses on understanding concepts, thoughts, or experiences in depth.
What type of data is numerical and can be repeated easily?
Quantitative research
Quantitative research emphasizes measurement and statistical analysis.
What is the term for the extent to which research methods show a true and honest insight into social reality?
Validity
Validity assesses the accuracy of a research study’s findings.
What does reliability refer to in research?
The extent to which a piece of research is replicable and consistent
Reliability ensures that similar results can be obtained if the study is repeated.
What is generalisability in research?
Ability to make claims about the wider target population from the research findings
Generalisability allows researchers to apply their findings to larger groups.
What does representativeness mean in the context of a sample?
Is the sample a fair reflection of the target population?
Representativeness ensures that all characteristics of the population are reflected in the sample.
Fill in the blank: Operationalisation is defining a concept and making it _______.
measurable
Operationalisation involves creating specific definitions for abstract concepts.
What is the Hawthorne Effect?
Phenomenon of subjects behaving differently because they are being studied
The Hawthorne Effect can impact the validity of research findings.
What is primary data?
Information collected directly by the sociologist for their research
Primary data is original and specific to the researcher’s study.
What is secondary data?
Information that has already been collected by someone else
Secondary data can be useful for comparative studies or background research.
What are demand characteristics in research?
Participants change their behavior based on their interpretation of the study’s aims
Demand characteristics can lead to skewed results due to participant bias.
What is social desirability bias?
Occurs when participants want to present themselves in a socially acceptable way
This bias can affect the honesty of participants’ responses.
What does going native refer to in research?
Where the researcher ceases to balance roles of participant and observer
Going native can compromise the objectivity of the research.
What is researcher bias?
When the researcher’s beliefs or expectations influence the research design or data collection
Researcher bias can affect the integrity of the study.
What is confirmation bias?
Tendency to search for/interpret information in a way that confirms one’s prior beliefs
Confirmation bias can limit the scope of inquiry in research.
What is interpretation bias?
An information processing bias where a researcher may interpret data in a way that the participant did not intend
Interpretation bias can lead to misrepresentations of findings.
What does rapport refer to in research?
Ease of the relationship between the researcher and their subjects
Good rapport can enhance the quality of data collected.
What do positivists believe about the social world?
It is governed by laws that can be discovered through scientific observation and measurement.
Positivists compare the social world to the natural world in this belief.
What methods do positivists believe sociologists should use?
The same methods as natural scientists, such as physicists and chemists.
This includes scientific observation and measurement.
How do positivists view sociology?
As a social science capable of producing objective knowledge about society.
They emphasize the importance of objectivity in sociological research.
What does it mean for positivists to be value-free?
They should not allow their personal beliefs or opinions to influence their research.
This is a key principle in positivist methodology.
What type of data do positivists prefer to use?
Quantitative data such as statistics.
This data is analyzed to identify patterns and trends in social behavior.
What do positivists believe quantitative data can help uncover?
Cause-and-effect relationships and establish social facts or laws.
They argue that this data provides a more scientific basis for understanding society.
What is the macro approach in positivism?
Concerned with the big picture and how society as a whole is structured.
This approach contrasts with micro-level studies that focus on individual interactions.
Why is positivism influential in sociological research?
Positivist research methods are often seen as more reliable and are favored by governments and funding bodies.
Methods like social surveys and questionnaires allow for generalizations about large populations.
True or False: Positivists are more interested in micro-level interactions than macro-level structures.
False.
Positivists focus on macro-level structures and the big picture.
What do interpretivists reject about the positivist view?
Interpretivists reject the positivist view that the social world can be studied in the same way as the natural world.
How do interpretivists view people in contrast to objects?
Interpretivists argue that people are not like objects; they have consciousness and free will, and their behaviour is not determined by external forces.
What do interpretivists believe about the social world?
Interpretivists argue that the social world is socially constructed, shaped by the meanings people give to their interactions.
What is ‘verstehen’ in interpretivism?
Verstehen, or empathetic understanding, is the perspective that sociologists should adopt to understand the meanings that people give to their actions and experiences.
What type of data do interpretivists prefer to use?
Interpretivists prefer to use qualitative data, such as that gained from unstructured interviews and participant observation.
What do interpretivists believe about the validity of sociological research?
Interpretivists argue that sociological research should be valid, accurately reflecting the social reality it studies.
What is the interpretivist stance on reliability in research?
Interpretivists are less concerned with reliability, believing that the social world is constantly changing and that it is impossible to replicate research findings exactly.
What does reflexivity mean in interpretivism?
Reflexivity means that sociologists should be aware of their own biases and how these might influence their research.
How do interpretivists view society?
Interpretivists believe that people are the architects of society, which is the net sum of all social interactions and the interpretations that underpin them.
What aspect of experience do interpretivists highlight?
Interpretivists highlight the importance of subjective experience—how people feel about their experience of social life.
What is the view of the social world in Positivism?
Governed by laws; can be studied scientifically
What is the view of the social world in Interpretivism?
Socially constructed; focus on meaning and interpretation
What is the role of the sociologist in Positivism?
Objective and value-free
What is the role of the sociologist in Interpretivism?
Develop verstehen (empathetic understanding)
What is the research approach of Positivism?
Macro (study of society as a whole)
What is the research approach of Interpretivism?
Micro (study of individuals and small groups)
What type of data is used in Positivism?
Quantitative (numerical data, statistics)
What type of data is used in Interpretivism?
Qualitative (words, descriptions, interpretations)
What research methods are commonly used in Positivism?
Questionnaires, structured interviews, official statistics
What research methods are commonly used in Interpretivism?
Unstructured interviews, participant observation, personal documents
What is the focus of Positivism?
Identifying patterns and trends in social behaviour
What is the focus of Interpretivism?
Understanding the meanings and motivations behind social action
What are key concepts in Positivism?
Objectivity, reliability, value freedom, cause and effect, generalisability
What are key concepts in Interpretivism?
Verstehen, validity, reflexivity, social construction
What are some criticisms of Positivism?
Ignores the importance of meaning and interpretation; methods can be imposing; fails to capture the lived experience of social actors
What are some criticisms of Interpretivism?
Can be subjective; findings difficult to generalise; research can be influenced by the sociologist’s values and interpretations; can be difficult to replicate
What are examples of theories in Positivism?
Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism
What are examples of theories in Interpretivism?
Interactionism, Symbolic Interactionism, Phenomenology, Ethnomethodology
What are typical research topics in Positivism?
Social problems such as crime, poverty, and education
What are typical research topics in Interpretivism?
The everyday lives and experiences of individuals and groups; the meanings and interpretations people give to their experiences; social interaction in different settings
methodological pluralism
sociologists use a mixture of positivist and interpretivists methods. approach allows researchers to benifit from the strengths of both approaches.
what are the 4 practical considerations
- time
- cost
- access
- size of the sample
what are the ethical considerations
- confidentiality
- privacy
- anonymity
- right to withdraw
- avoiding harm to participants
- protecting vunerable groups
- informed consent
- ensuring legality
- safeguarding
What is Content Analysis?
This is the number of times a sign, symbol, word, picture etc. is used within a media text.
What are Questionnaires/Surveys?
List of questions subject to self-completion. Questions can either be open or closed.
What are Structured Interviews?
The researcher reads a list of closed questions and ticks boxes of pre-coded responses.
What are Semi-Structured Interviews?
The researcher has some set/pre-coded questions but can probe respondents and ask extra questions if needed.
What are Unstructured Interviews?
The researcher may have themes to cover but no predetermined questions, allowing for a conversational flow.
What are Focus Groups?
An unstructured interview directed to a group of respondents who are encouraged to discuss with each other.
What are Group Interviews?
Set up with a researcher and a panel of participants, making it less threatening for participants.
What is Overt Non-Participant Observation?
Participants know they are being studied, but the researcher is not involved with the group.
What is Covert Non-Participant Observation?
The researcher is not fully participating and the participants are unaware they are being studied.
What is Overt Participant Observation?
Participants know they are being studied and the researcher is fully involved with the group.
What is Covert Participant Observation?
The researcher participates with the group while the participants are unaware they are being studied.
What is Ethnography?
Involves the researcher immersing themselves into the natural setting of the social group being studied.
What are Official Statistics?
Quantitative data collected by the government, often gathered through other research methods.
What are Longitudinal Studies?
Research designed to collect data on a sample on at least two occasions to generate trends and patterns.
What is Secondary Data?
Data that has been carried out by someone else or an institution, can be quantitative or qualitative.
What is Triangulation?
The use of more than one method to cross-check data, counter bias, or increase confidence in findings.
What is Reflexivity?
Used by Interpretivists to track strengths and weaknesses of the research to improve validity.
What is Respondent Validation?
Technique to check results from participants’ viewpoint by returning results for their verification.
What is Methodological Pluralism?
A mixed method approach where methods are combined to provide a fuller and more detailed picture.
