Research Methods Flashcards
How many marks is question 1 worth and what do you have to do?
4 marks, summarise a table of data, graph or chart
Qualitative
Produces textual information = greater detail of data
Quantitative
Produces numerical data that can be displayed in a table or graph, reveals patterns and trends but not reasons why
Primary data
Data the sociologist collects themselves
Secondary data
Data that is already collected and available to sociologists
Validity
How true or accurate the research is
Reliability
The extent to which if we repeat the experiment, would we get the same results?
Representativeness
The extent to which the sample selected is a fair reflection of the target population
Generalisability
Ability to make claims about the wider population from the research findings
What factors might influence the topics studied by sociologists?
-interests and values of the researcher
-access to research subjects
-current debates in the academic world
Operationalise
To define something so you can accurately measure it
What key concept is operationalising essential for?
Validity
Gatekeeper
A point of contact who can put you in contact with the participants you wish to research
Strengths and weaknesses of random sampling
+reduces bias
+equal chance of being chosen
-minority groups might not be presented
-could result in similar participants being selected
Strengths and weaknesses of systematic sampling
+reduces bias
+equal chance of being chosen
-time consuming
-sampling frame wont always provide useful information
Strengths and weaknesses of stratified sampling
+can ensure each group is represented
+not biased
-time consuming
-if some groups have a larger number of people = more likely to be biased
Strengths and weakness of quota sampling
+more representative
+easy to set targets
-researcher may be biased
-numbers might not represent time frame
Strengths and weaknesses of snowball sampling
+useful when there is no sampling frame
+good for studies including range of different people
-not representative
-biased/subjective
Strengths and weaknesses of purposive / opportunity sampling
+useful when there is no sampling frame
+good when there is a specific type of person needed
-not representative
-biased/subjective
Strengths and weaknesses of volunteer sampling
+useful when there is no sampling frame
+easy : can get a large sample
-sample made up of same type of people
-biased/subjective
What is a random sample?
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample
What is a stratified sample?
Every ‘nth’ member of the target population is selected for the sample
What is a systematic sample?
To obtain this sample, different subgroups in the target population are identified, then people are randomly selected from these subgroups in the proportion to their numbers in the target population
What is a quota sampling?
Researcher has a clear idea of the sample they want, they will pick participants that meet their criteria, choosing individuals or cases that fit the nature of the research
What is snowball sampling?
One contact will recruit other participants to get involved in the research. Methods often used by sociologists for hard to reach groups
What is volunteer sampling?
When a sample is gathered via participants putting themselves forward to be studied. Respondents are found though advertising (internet, shop window)
What is opportunity sampling?
Where participants are gained by making the most of situations or opportunities in which research population is likely to be found
What is purposive sampling?
Choosing individuals or cases that fit the nature of the research
What is positivism?
-particular set of assumptions about how the social world or society is organised and the appropriate way of studying it
-treat people as objects whose behaviour can be directly observed, measured and counted in the same way as natural persona (animals, weather)
-individuals are ‘puppets of society’
-use quantitative data
-reliable and can be checked and replicated
What does it mean to be objective?
Carrying out research in controlled conditions such as laboratories. Use sampling methods to keep distance from participants and ensure neutrality
What is interpretivism?
-rejects positivist views and says that people are active, conscious beings with free will who are aware of what is going on in social situations and therefore capable of making choices on how to behave
-understanding meanings
-qualitative methods
-high in validity
-verstehen and rapport
What is verstehen?
Need to develop empathetic understanding to uncover the shared interactions and interpretations that make up society
What are the 4 types of participant issues?
Hawthorne effect
Demand characteristics
Social desirability bias
Going native
What is the Hawthorne effect?
Participants will behave differently if they know they are being observed
=would not be valid
What are demand characteristics?
Participants change their behaviour based on their interpretation of the aims of the study (ether to please researcher or do the opposite of what they think is expected of them)
=would not be valid
What is social desirability bias?
Occurs when parts of the study relate to social norms or expectations and participants want to present themselves in a socially acceptable way
=would not be valid as participants are presenting themselves in a socially acceptable way
What is going native?
Where the researchers ceases to balance roles of the participant and observer and simply beings to participate like any other group member
=causes bias as they are too involved so it would not be valid
What are the 4 types of researcher issues?
Researcher bias
Confirmation bias
Interpretation bias
Rapport
What is researcher bias?
When the researcher’s beliefs or expectations influence the research design or data collection process
=would not be valid + biased
What is confirmation bias?
Tendency to search for/interpret information in a way that confirms one’s prior beliefs
=biased, not valid
What is interpretation bias?
-an information processing bias where a researcher may interpret the data in a way that the participant did not intend
What is rapport?
Ease of the relationship between people - this case = researcher and their subjects
What are examples of practical issues?
-time
-cost
-access
-subject matter of research
-social characteristics of those being researched
What are ‘ethics’?
Set of principles of conduct that govern the behaviour of individuals and/or groups
What is the BSA?
British Sociological Association - social network that promotes sociology
Examples of ethical guidelines
-anonymity
-confidentiality
-right to withdraw
-protection of vulnerable groups
-privacy
-informed consent
-safeguarding
Strengths of a content analysis
Practical - cheap = easy to access data on research of topic = increase representativeness of research as you will be able to collect data that reflects characteristics of group interested in
Ethical- no participants are required = ethical guidelines set out by the BSA are easy to follow. Validity is no concern as content is accurately represented
Theoretical - quantitative data + reliable = positivists favour
What is a content analysis
Counting the number of times a sign, symbol, word, picture etc is used within a media text
Limitations of a content analysis
Practical - time consuming = cannot collect data on a large amount of content = reduce generalisability as not able to make wider claims about how a group is represented
Ethical - can be a subjective approach + could analyse text out of context leading to emotional harm which would reduce validity
Theoretical - intepretivists : statistics would provide little information about human stories or behaviour as no opinions are given = decrease validity
What are questionnaires/surveys?
List of questions subject to self-completion. Questions can either be open or closed
Strengths of questionnaires/surveys?
Practical - can be distributed to large geographical area so sample is likely to access participants required for research = increase representativeness as it reflects characteristics of target population
Ethical - subject to self-completion = informed consent is given which increases validity as the participants feel comfortable answering questions meaning they are more likely to be honest and give a true insight into the topic being researched
Theoretical - standardised questions + potential to pre-code data = method is replicable and therefore more reliable = positivists like
Limitations of questionnaires/ surveys
Practical - questionnaires can have low response rates = reduces sample size + affects generalisability of the data as wider claims might not be made about whole population
Ethical - sensitive nature of topic = emotional harm = could potentially lie and give socially desirable responses = impact validity as not a true insight
Theoretical - standardised nature of questions = respondent may select nearest answer that describes situation but may not be fully relevant = respondents cannot explain meaning behind answers = interpretivists may dislike
What is a structured interview?
Researcher reads a list of closed questions and ticks boxes of pre-coded responses
Strengths of structured interviews
Practical - interviews are pre-arranged = allow access to participants + response rate is higher = increase representativeness of research as sample will reflect the characteristics of the target population
Ethical - interviewer explains interviewer aims = participant feels more comfortable = rapport built up = encourages informed consent = increases validity as participants will answer more honestly
Theoretical - closed + standardised = data is objective, numerical and therefore increases reliability as it is replicable + ensures data has value freedom from researchers’ own biases = positivists like this method
Limitations of structured interviews
Practical - time consuming, difficult to access large sample of participants = impacts generalisability as wider claims can’t be made
Ethical - questions could make participants feel uncomfortable = emotional harm + safeguarding issues . Lack of conservational flow = participants feel uncomfortable = feel right to withdraw + impacts answers as they are socially desirable responses so impacts validity
Theoretical - interpretivists = dislike as it causes sensitive issues . Participants can’t expand = reduces validity = meaningful insight cannot be found
=can be biased, researcher memory could be hazy
What is a semi-structured interview?
Researcher has some set questions however they are able to explore responses and ask extra questions if needed
Strengths of semi-structured interviews
Practical - pre-arranged interview = allows access = increases representativeness of research as sample reflects characteristics of target population
Ethical - interviews have more chance for rapport to be built up = encourages informed consent = allows for more empathy and understanding of sensitive topics = better safeguarded so potentially feels more comfortable to answer honestly = increases validity
Theoretical - interpretivists would like due to qualitative data being produced. Nature = flexible and Therese can be explored. In depth data gathered = increase in validity
Limitations of semi-structured interviews
Practical - time consuming = difficult to access a large sample of participants = impacts generalisability as wider claims can’t be made
Ethical - uncomfortable questions lead to emotional harm and safeguarding issues = decrease validity as participants feel they have to produce socially desirable responses. Interviewer effect can also lead to this
Theoretical - positivists would not like flexibility as they argue if rapport is built, interviewer becomes biased = lose objectivity = impact reliability as it is difficult to replicate
What is an unstructured interview?
Researcher may have some themes to cover but no predetermined questions or themes that they should follow. Interviews take conversational flow
What are the strengths of an unstructured interview?
Theoretical - leads to in-depth data collection as interviewer can enquire and ask extra questions. Rapport and verstehen can also be built. = increases validity + liked by interpretivists
Practical - interviews are pre-arranged = able to gain access = response rate is higher = higher representativeness as sample will reflect characteristics of target population
Ethical - informed consent will be given and participants can build rapport between researcher and participants = conversational flow os no emotional harm. = genuinely comfortable = answer honestly so increases validity
What are the limitations of unstructured interviews?
Theoretical - positivists would not like the lack of structure of this method as if rapport builds, leads to bias and loss of objectivity and therefore impacts reliability of research as it becomes difficult to replicate
Practical - interviews can be time consuming so only small sample is gathered = decrease generalisability as wider claims can’t be made
Ethical - questions make respondent feel uncomfortable = emotional harm and safeguarding issue = decrease validity of research as the respondent may feel they have to provide socially desirable responses. Interviewer effect can also lead to this
What is a focus group?
Unstructured interview directed to a group of respondents who are encouraged to discuss with each other. Interviewer will set up themes and questions and manage the responses from participants
Strengths of focus groups
Theoretical - interpretivists would favour as in-depth discussions are encouraged. The questions target a specific group = they feel comfortable which increases validity
Ethical - informed consent will be given and participants can build rapport = would not feel emotional harm due to relaxed environment = valid data
Practical - focus group arranged = allows access to required participants = higher response rate and increases representativeness of research as sample will reflect characteristics of target population = no bias as little interference from sociologist
Limitations of focus groups
Theoretical - if rapport builds, interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity = reduce reliability as it will become difficult to replicate study in the same way. = positivists wont like method
Ethical - respondents may feel uncomfortable with sensitive topics or if other respondents talk more = others feel uncomfortable or suffer emotional harm = decrease validity due to no input
Practical - data recording + analysis = time consuming = sample size is likely to be smaller which decreases generalisability or results as wider claims can be made about whole population based on a small group of people
What are overt non-participant observations
Participants know they are being studied but the researcher is not involved with the group being researched = qualitative data
What are the strengths of overt non - participant observations
Practical - researcher not involved in group meaning that it is fairly easy and cost effective method = researcher can gain access = increase representativeness and generalisability
Ethical - participants know they are big observed = informed consent is likely to be gained = increases validity as the participants will be more informed and should feel more comfortable to behave normally
Theoretical- interpretivists would favour as rich and in-depth insight can be gained = increases validity
What are the limitations of overt non-participant observations?
Practical - observations can be fairly time consuming = researcher may not be able to carry out as many observations = reduce generalisability as wider claims cat be made based on a small number of observations
Ethical - empathy and understanding reduced if participant feels uncomfortable being observed = my not display true behaviour = feel emotional harm = reduce validity of findings as behaviour may not be natural, may demonstrate social desirability
Theoretical - positivists would not like this method as it is difficult to replicate = reliability reduced
What is covert non-participant observations?
Researcher is not fully participating it’s the group and the participants are unaware they are being studied. : qualitative data
Strengths of covert non-participant observations?
Practical - researcher not involved = fairly easy and cost effective = researcher may be able to access more people to observe = increase representative and generalisability of research
Ethical - researcher is unlikely to influence group studied = less risk of harm if they are not fully involved in the group = group is less likely to change their behaviour = increase validity
Theoretical - interpretivists would favour as rich and in depth insight is gained = increase validity
What are limitations of covert non-participant observations?
Practical - observations = time consuming = researcher can’t carry out as many observations = reduce generalisability as wider claims can’t be made based on small number of observations
Ethical - no informed consent can be given if participants don’t know they are being observed = searcher could hold prejudices / bias towards the group = decrease validity
Theoretical - research would be hard to replicate = reduce reliability. Positivists would not like this method
What is overt participant observations
Participants know they are being studied and the researcher is fully involved with the group being researched
Strength of overt participant observations
Practical - participants know they are being observed + researcher part of observation = gain access = increase representativeness + generalisability
Ethical - researcher can be fully immersed in the group = experience verstehen/understanding = true insight as they know they are being researched, BSA ethical guidelines are followed and informed consent = increase validity
Theoretical - interpretivists favour as rich and in depth insight = increases validity
Limitations of overt participant observations
Practical - observations fairly time consuming = reader not able to carry out many observations = reduce generalisability as wider claims cannot be made based on small number of observations
Ethical - participants may feel uncomfortable = emotional harm, may treat researcher like an outsider = reduce validty as May to act natural / act socially desirable. Researcher too involved = researcher bias = reduces validity
Theoretical - positivists would not like method as it is difficult to replicate = reliability is reduced
What are covert participant observations?
Researcher is participating with the group and the participants are unaware they are being studied
Strengths of covert participant observations?
Practical - researcher part of observation = gain access through discussion = increase representativeness and generalisability
Ethical - researcher is fully immersed in group to be studied and expertise verstehen / understanding = true insight = increases validity as researcher can build up rapport = participants should feel more comfortable = less risk of emotional harm
Theoretical - interpretivists would favour as rich and in - depth insight is gained = increase validity
Limitations of covert participant observations
Practical - observations can be time consuming = researcher can’t carry out as many observations = reduce generalisability as wider claims can’t be made based on small number of observations
Ethical - no informed consent if participants don’t know they are being observed = researcher bias = reduce validity = higher possibility of going native or losing objectivity = decrease validity
Theoretical - researcher would be hard to replicate reducing reliability = positivists would not like this method
What is an ethnography
Involves the researcher immersing themselves into natural setting of the social group being studied and participating in and observing their daily activities
Strengths of an ethnography
Practical - immersing yourself = gain access = increase representativeness as researcher reflects characteristics of target population
Ethical - allows researcher to gain informed consent from participants = increases validity = feel more comfortable so answer honestly
Theoretical - preferred by interpretivists = rapport can be built and verstehen can be gained = allows researcher to access ‘lived experience’ of particular social groups = increases validity
Limitations of ethnography
Practical - time consuming = small sample researched = decrease generalisability
Ethical - sensitive topics = emotional harm as participants feel uncomfortable = reduce validity , safeguarding issues if participant is under 18 = reduces validity. Researcher immersed = harmful for researcher = dangerous situation = go native or lose objectivity = decrease validity
Theoretical - positivists do not favour because quantitative data is not gained = not objective or reliable = decrease reliability
What are official statistics
Quantitative data collected by the government which is often gathered through other research methods such as questionnaires. Two of the biggest sources = Office for National Statistics and the Census
Strengths of official statistics
Practical - not time consuming, largely representative can be accessed = increase generalisability
Ethical - official statistics = secondary data = following ethical guidelines s not an issue because research is already done. Data gathered by questionnaires = likely to be anonymous = responses are honest so increases validity
Theoretical - positivists would like = very objective and has been collected in a systematic, scientific and standardised way = increases reliability as it can be replicated easily
Limitations of official statistics
Practical - may not represent whole picture, large sample = response rate can be low = reduce generalisability = wider claims cannot be made about whole population
Ethical - official statistics = open to political abuse = manipulated to look better = leads to harm as some groups are misrepresented = validity is reduced
Theoretical - quantitative data = tells us nothing Interpretivists would not like = low in validity as no verstehen
What are non-official statistics
Quantitative data collected by a non-government source = often gathered through other research methods such as questionnaires
Strengths of non-official statistics
-easy and cheap to access
-extremely up to date
Large representative sample as gathered by surveys
-trends over a long period of time can be seen
Limitations of non-official statistics
-may not represent compete picture
-socially constructed = do not appear/happen
-tell us very little about human stories / interpretations
What are longitudinal studies?
Research designed to collect data on a sample (of people/documents) on at least 2 occasions. Generically aim to generate trends and patterns = quantitative data found
Strengths of longitudinal studies
Practical - lengthy time = gain access
Ethical- regular contact = create trust and rapport = increase validity = feel more comfortable so less risk of emotional harm
Theoretical - positivists would favour due to numerical data = trends are gained which increases reliability = same/similar results are found
Limitations of longitudinal studies
Practical - high drop out rate = Time consuming, participant may get bored = tracking sample can be complex = reduce generalisability
Ethical - research is sensitive = emotional harm, participants may change answer = reduce validity
Theoretical - interpretivists less likely to use method because it provides quantitative data = assess patterns and trends = low in validity = deeper explanations are not gained
What is secondary data?
Data carried out by someone else = quantitative or qualitative
Strengths of secondary data
Practical - extremely cheap + easy to access = method is reliable as it is scientific = easy to replicate
Ethical - no participants are required = ethical guidelines set out by the BSA = easy to follow = increase reliability as easy to replicate
Theoretical - positives would favour numerical data as it increases reliability of data same/similar results are achieved
Limitations of secondary data
Practical - statistics show trends but not explanations = validity is reduced : honest insight into social reality isn’t gained
Ethical - statistics open to political ‘abuse’ = manipulated incorrectly = groups being researched are not presented fairly = impacts validity and causes harm + researcher has no control over data collected
Theoretical - interpretivists say it provides little information about human stories or no behaviour has no feelings / opinions are given = decrease validity
What is triangulation?
Use of more than one method to cross check validity of the data being collected e.g to counter the bias of using a single method or to increase confidence in the findings
Strengths of triangulation
Practical - eliminates bias as range of methods = cross check data/findings = increases validity
Ethical - participants are fully represented y different methods = reduces emotional harm = increases validity
Theoretical - supported by positivists and interpretivists
Limitations of triangulation
Practical - time consuming = will potentially reduce sample size = reduce representativeness and generalisability
Ethical - depending on methods, may be difficult to uphold some ethical guidelines = could impact validity of results
What is reflexivity?
Generally used by interpretivists where they keep track of the strengths and weakness of the research to evaluate their work wit the aim of improving its validity
Strengths of reflexivity
Practical - researcher thinks critically = ensures groups are examined effectively + gives true picture = increases validity
-reflexive = reviewing how role affects validity = look out for issues surrounding interviewer effect = respondents change their responses and give socially desirable ones
Theoretical - interpretivists would favour method as it aims to ensure a true insight into social reality = increase validity and verstehen about group is gained
Limitations of reflexivity
Practical - time consuming = done on a regular basis = notes made about each time ensure it is done effectively
Theoretical - positivists may not be interested in reflexivity as methods used are often objective = less likelihood of there being biases to influence their results
What is respondent validation?
Technique to check results from participants viewpoint. Results are returned to participants to check it accurately reflects their experiences/views
Strengths of respondent validation
Practical - researcher gain feedback from participants who were involves in event = check how behaviour was interpreted = avoids bias + improves validity = ensures accuracy
Ethical - reduces emotional arm = participants able to check they they are being portrayed fairly and accurately = increase validity = accurate and fair representation of group being researched
Theoretical - interpretivists favour due to allowing researcher to develop rapport and verstehen = increase validity and people are more likely to be honest = deeper insight into their life
Limitations of respondent validation
Practical - time consuming, check findings = time spent more wisely = reduce generalisability of findings overall as researchers don’t have time = can’t make wider claims
Ethical - could cause emotional harm = going over experiences = decrease validity as participants may change responses = lack of true insight
Theoretical - positivists would dislike method = not objective or scientific = decrease reliability as can’t be replicated
What is methodological pluralism?
Mixed method approach where method are coming to provide fuller more detailed and comprehensive picture of the topic
Strengths of methodological pluralism
Theoretical - interpretivists prefer as gives in depth examination = comprehensive insight into study area
Ethical - participants reflected more accurately = validity increased which reduces risk of emotional harm
Practical - eliminates bias = get true understanding = increases validity
Limitations of methodological pluralism
Theoretical - positivists dislike = using mixed method = no comprehensive understanding =like to produce qualitative data = cannot be analysed objectively = deuce reliability
Ethical - depending on methods used, may be difficult to uphold ethical guidelines = could impact validity
Practical - time consuming = reduce sample size = reduce representativeness + generalisability
