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Research Methods Flashcards

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

How many marks is question 1 worth and what do you have to do?

A

4 marks, summarise a table of data, graph or chart

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2
Q

Qualitative

A

Produces textual information = greater detail of data

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3
Q

Quantitative

A

Produces numerical data that can be displayed in a table or graph, reveals patterns and trends but not reasons why

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4
Q

Primary data

A

Data the sociologist collects themselves

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5
Q

Secondary data

A

Data that is already collected and available to sociologists

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6
Q

Validity

A

How true or accurate the research is

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7
Q

Reliability

A

The extent to which if we repeat the experiment, would we get the same results?

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8
Q

Representativeness

A

The extent to which the sample selected is a fair reflection of the target population

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9
Q

Generalisability

A

Ability to make claims about the wider population from the research findings

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10
Q

What factors might influence the topics studied by sociologists?

A

-interests and values of the researcher
-access to research subjects
-current debates in the academic world

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11
Q

Operationalise

A

To define something so you can accurately measure it

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12
Q

What key concept is operationalising essential for?

A

Validity

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13
Q

Gatekeeper

A

A point of contact who can put you in contact with the participants you wish to research

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14
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of random sampling

A

+reduces bias
+equal chance of being chosen

-minority groups might not be presented
-could result in similar participants being selected

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15
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of systematic sampling

A

+reduces bias
+equal chance of being chosen

-time consuming
-sampling frame wont always provide useful information

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16
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of stratified sampling

A

+can ensure each group is represented
+not biased

-time consuming
-if some groups have a larger number of people = more likely to be biased

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17
Q

Strengths and weakness of quota sampling

A

+more representative
+easy to set targets

-researcher may be biased
-numbers might not represent time frame

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18
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of snowball sampling

A

+useful when there is no sampling frame
+good for studies including range of different people

-not representative
-biased/subjective

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19
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of purposive / opportunity sampling

A

+useful when there is no sampling frame
+good when there is a specific type of person needed

-not representative
-biased/subjective

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20
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of volunteer sampling

A

+useful when there is no sampling frame
+easy : can get a large sample

-sample made up of same type of people
-biased/subjective

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21
Q

What is a random sample?

A

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample

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22
Q

What is a stratified sample?

A

Every ‘nth’ member of the target population is selected for the sample

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23
Q

What is a systematic sample?

A

To obtain this sample, different subgroups in the target population are identified, then people are randomly selected from these subgroups in the proportion to their numbers in the target population

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24
Q

What is a quota sampling?

A

Researcher has a clear idea of the sample they want, they will pick participants that meet their criteria, choosing individuals or cases that fit the nature of the research

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25
Q

What is snowball sampling?

A

One contact will recruit other participants to get involved in the research. Methods often used by sociologists for hard to reach groups

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26
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

When a sample is gathered via participants putting themselves forward to be studied. Respondents are found though advertising (internet, shop window)

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27
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Where participants are gained by making the most of situations or opportunities in which research population is likely to be found

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28
Q

What is purposive sampling?

A

Choosing individuals or cases that fit the nature of the research

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29
Q

What is positivism?

A

-particular set of assumptions about how the social world or society is organised and the appropriate way of studying it
-treat people as objects whose behaviour can be directly observed, measured and counted in the same way as natural persona (animals, weather)
-individuals are ‘puppets of society’
-use quantitative data
-reliable and can be checked and replicated

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30
Q

What does it mean to be objective?

A

Carrying out research in controlled conditions such as laboratories. Use sampling methods to keep distance from participants and ensure neutrality

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31
Q

What is interpretivism?

A

-rejects positivist views and says that people are active, conscious beings with free will who are aware of what is going on in social situations and therefore capable of making choices on how to behave
-understanding meanings
-qualitative methods
-high in validity
-verstehen and rapport

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32
Q

What is verstehen?

A

Need to develop empathetic understanding to uncover the shared interactions and interpretations that make up society

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33
Q

What are the 4 types of participant issues?

A

Hawthorne effect
Demand characteristics
Social desirability bias
Going native

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34
Q

What is the Hawthorne effect?

A

Participants will behave differently if they know they are being observed

=would not be valid

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35
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Participants change their behaviour based on their interpretation of the aims of the study (ether to please researcher or do the opposite of what they think is expected of them)

=would not be valid

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36
Q

What is social desirability bias?

A

Occurs when parts of the study relate to social norms or expectations and participants want to present themselves in a socially acceptable way

=would not be valid as participants are presenting themselves in a socially acceptable way

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37
Q

What is going native?

A

Where the researchers ceases to balance roles of the participant and observer and simply beings to participate like any other group member

=causes bias as they are too involved so it would not be valid

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38
Q

What are the 4 types of researcher issues?

A

Researcher bias
Confirmation bias
Interpretation bias
Rapport

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39
Q

What is researcher bias?

A

When the researcher’s beliefs or expectations influence the research design or data collection process

=would not be valid + biased

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40
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

Tendency to search for/interpret information in a way that confirms one’s prior beliefs

=biased, not valid

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41
Q

What is interpretation bias?

A

-an information processing bias where a researcher may interpret the data in a way that the participant did not intend

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42
Q

What is rapport?

A

Ease of the relationship between people - this case = researcher and their subjects

43
Q

What are examples of practical issues?

A

-time
-cost
-access
-subject matter of research
-social characteristics of those being researched

44
Q

What are ‘ethics’?

A

Set of principles of conduct that govern the behaviour of individuals and/or groups

45
Q

What is the BSA?

A

British Sociological Association - social network that promotes sociology

46
Q

Examples of ethical guidelines

A

-anonymity
-confidentiality
-right to withdraw
-protection of vulnerable groups
-privacy
-informed consent
-safeguarding

47
Q

Strengths of a content analysis

A

Practical - cheap = easy to access data on research of topic = increase representativeness of research as you will be able to collect data that reflects characteristics of group interested in

Ethical- no participants are required = ethical guidelines set out by the BSA are easy to follow. Validity is no concern as content is accurately represented

Theoretical - quantitative data + reliable = positivists favour

48
Q

What is a content analysis

A

Counting the number of times a sign, symbol, word, picture etc is used within a media text

49
Q

Limitations of a content analysis

A

Practical - time consuming = cannot collect data on a large amount of content = reduce generalisability as not able to make wider claims about how a group is represented

Ethical - can be a subjective approach + could analyse text out of context leading to emotional harm which would reduce validity

Theoretical - intepretivists : statistics would provide little information about human stories or behaviour as no opinions are given = decrease validity

50
Q

What are questionnaires/surveys?

A

List of questions subject to self-completion. Questions can either be open or closed

51
Q

Strengths of questionnaires/surveys?

A

Practical - can be distributed to large geographical area so sample is likely to access participants required for research = increase representativeness as it reflects characteristics of target population

Ethical - subject to self-completion = informed consent is given which increases validity as the participants feel comfortable answering questions meaning they are more likely to be honest and give a true insight into the topic being researched

Theoretical - standardised questions + potential to pre-code data = method is replicable and therefore more reliable = positivists like

52
Q

Limitations of questionnaires/ surveys

A

Practical - questionnaires can have low response rates = reduces sample size + affects generalisability of the data as wider claims might not be made about whole population

Ethical - sensitive nature of topic = emotional harm = could potentially lie and give socially desirable responses = impact validity as not a true insight

Theoretical - standardised nature of questions = respondent may select nearest answer that describes situation but may not be fully relevant = respondents cannot explain meaning behind answers = interpretivists may dislike

53
Q

What is a structured interview?

A

Researcher reads a list of closed questions and ticks boxes of pre-coded responses

54
Q

Strengths of structured interviews

A

Practical - interviews are pre-arranged = allow access to participants + response rate is higher = increase representativeness of research as sample will reflect the characteristics of the target population

Ethical - interviewer explains interviewer aims = participant feels more comfortable = rapport built up = encourages informed consent = increases validity as participants will answer more honestly

Theoretical - closed + standardised = data is objective, numerical and therefore increases reliability as it is replicable + ensures data has value freedom from researchers’ own biases = positivists like this method

55
Q

Limitations of structured interviews

A

Practical - time consuming, difficult to access large sample of participants = impacts generalisability as wider claims can’t be made

Ethical - questions could make participants feel uncomfortable = emotional harm + safeguarding issues . Lack of conservational flow = participants feel uncomfortable = feel right to withdraw + impacts answers as they are socially desirable responses so impacts validity

Theoretical - interpretivists = dislike as it causes sensitive issues . Participants can’t expand = reduces validity = meaningful insight cannot be found

=can be biased, researcher memory could be hazy

56
Q

What is a semi-structured interview?

A

Researcher has some set questions however they are able to explore responses and ask extra questions if needed

57
Q

Strengths of semi-structured interviews

A

Practical - pre-arranged interview = allows access = increases representativeness of research as sample reflects characteristics of target population

Ethical - interviews have more chance for rapport to be built up = encourages informed consent = allows for more empathy and understanding of sensitive topics = better safeguarded so potentially feels more comfortable to answer honestly = increases validity

Theoretical - interpretivists would like due to qualitative data being produced. Nature = flexible and Therese can be explored. In depth data gathered = increase in validity

58
Q

Limitations of semi-structured interviews

A

Practical - time consuming = difficult to access a large sample of participants = impacts generalisability as wider claims can’t be made

Ethical - uncomfortable questions lead to emotional harm and safeguarding issues = decrease validity as participants feel they have to produce socially desirable responses. Interviewer effect can also lead to this

Theoretical - positivists would not like flexibility as they argue if rapport is built, interviewer becomes biased = lose objectivity = impact reliability as it is difficult to replicate

59
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

Researcher may have some themes to cover but no predetermined questions or themes that they should follow. Interviews take conversational flow

60
Q

What are the strengths of an unstructured interview?

A

Theoretical - leads to in-depth data collection as interviewer can enquire and ask extra questions. Rapport and verstehen can also be built. = increases validity + liked by interpretivists

Practical - interviews are pre-arranged = able to gain access = response rate is higher = higher representativeness as sample will reflect characteristics of target population

Ethical - informed consent will be given and participants can build rapport between researcher and participants = conversational flow os no emotional harm. = genuinely comfortable = answer honestly so increases validity

61
Q

What are the limitations of unstructured interviews?

A

Theoretical - positivists would not like the lack of structure of this method as if rapport builds, leads to bias and loss of objectivity and therefore impacts reliability of research as it becomes difficult to replicate

Practical - interviews can be time consuming so only small sample is gathered = decrease generalisability as wider claims can’t be made

Ethical - questions make respondent feel uncomfortable = emotional harm and safeguarding issue = decrease validity of research as the respondent may feel they have to provide socially desirable responses. Interviewer effect can also lead to this

62
Q

What is a focus group?

A

Unstructured interview directed to a group of respondents who are encouraged to discuss with each other. Interviewer will set up themes and questions and manage the responses from participants

63
Q

Strengths of focus groups

A

Theoretical - interpretivists would favour as in-depth discussions are encouraged. The questions target a specific group = they feel comfortable which increases validity

Ethical - informed consent will be given and participants can build rapport = would not feel emotional harm due to relaxed environment = valid data

Practical - focus group arranged = allows access to required participants = higher response rate and increases representativeness of research as sample will reflect characteristics of target population = no bias as little interference from sociologist

64
Q

Limitations of focus groups

A

Theoretical - if rapport builds, interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity = reduce reliability as it will become difficult to replicate study in the same way. = positivists wont like method

Ethical - respondents may feel uncomfortable with sensitive topics or if other respondents talk more = others feel uncomfortable or suffer emotional harm = decrease validity due to no input

Practical - data recording + analysis = time consuming = sample size is likely to be smaller which decreases generalisability or results as wider claims can be made about whole population based on a small group of people

65
Q

What are overt non-participant observations

A

Participants know they are being studied but the researcher is not involved with the group being researched = qualitative data

66
Q

What are the strengths of overt non - participant observations

A

Practical - researcher not involved in group meaning that it is fairly easy and cost effective method = researcher can gain access = increase representativeness and generalisability

Ethical - participants know they are big observed = informed consent is likely to be gained = increases validity as the participants will be more informed and should feel more comfortable to behave normally

Theoretical- interpretivists would favour as rich and in-depth insight can be gained = increases validity

67
Q

What are the limitations of overt non-participant observations?

A

Practical - observations can be fairly time consuming = researcher may not be able to carry out as many observations = reduce generalisability as wider claims cat be made based on a small number of observations

Ethical - empathy and understanding reduced if participant feels uncomfortable being observed = my not display true behaviour = feel emotional harm = reduce validity of findings as behaviour may not be natural, may demonstrate social desirability

Theoretical - positivists would not like this method as it is difficult to replicate = reliability reduced

68
Q

What is covert non-participant observations?

A

Researcher is not fully participating it’s the group and the participants are unaware they are being studied. : qualitative data

69
Q

Strengths of covert non-participant observations?

A

Practical - researcher not involved = fairly easy and cost effective = researcher may be able to access more people to observe = increase representative and generalisability of research

Ethical - researcher is unlikely to influence group studied = less risk of harm if they are not fully involved in the group = group is less likely to change their behaviour = increase validity

Theoretical - interpretivists would favour as rich and in depth insight is gained = increase validity

70
Q

What are limitations of covert non-participant observations?

A

Practical - observations = time consuming = researcher can’t carry out as many observations = reduce generalisability as wider claims can’t be made based on small number of observations

Ethical - no informed consent can be given if participants don’t know they are being observed = searcher could hold prejudices / bias towards the group = decrease validity

Theoretical - research would be hard to replicate = reduce reliability. Positivists would not like this method

71
Q

What is overt participant observations

A

Participants know they are being studied and the researcher is fully involved with the group being researched

72
Q

Strength of overt participant observations

A

Practical - participants know they are being observed + researcher part of observation = gain access = increase representativeness + generalisability

Ethical - researcher can be fully immersed in the group = experience verstehen/understanding = true insight as they know they are being researched, BSA ethical guidelines are followed and informed consent = increase validity

Theoretical - interpretivists favour as rich and in depth insight = increases validity

73
Q

Limitations of overt participant observations

A

Practical - observations fairly time consuming = reader not able to carry out many observations = reduce generalisability as wider claims cannot be made based on small number of observations

Ethical - participants may feel uncomfortable = emotional harm, may treat researcher like an outsider = reduce validty as May to act natural / act socially desirable. Researcher too involved = researcher bias = reduces validity

Theoretical - positivists would not like method as it is difficult to replicate = reliability is reduced

74
Q

What are covert participant observations?

A

Researcher is participating with the group and the participants are unaware they are being studied

75
Q

Strengths of covert participant observations?

A

Practical - researcher part of observation = gain access through discussion = increase representativeness and generalisability

Ethical - researcher is fully immersed in group to be studied and expertise verstehen / understanding = true insight = increases validity as researcher can build up rapport = participants should feel more comfortable = less risk of emotional harm

Theoretical - interpretivists would favour as rich and in - depth insight is gained = increase validity

76
Q

Limitations of covert participant observations

A

Practical - observations can be time consuming = researcher can’t carry out as many observations = reduce generalisability as wider claims can’t be made based on small number of observations

Ethical - no informed consent if participants don’t know they are being observed = researcher bias = reduce validity = higher possibility of going native or losing objectivity = decrease validity

Theoretical - researcher would be hard to replicate reducing reliability = positivists would not like this method

77
Q

What is an ethnography

A

Involves the researcher immersing themselves into natural setting of the social group being studied and participating in and observing their daily activities

78
Q

Strengths of an ethnography

A

Practical - immersing yourself = gain access = increase representativeness as researcher reflects characteristics of target population

Ethical - allows researcher to gain informed consent from participants = increases validity = feel more comfortable so answer honestly

Theoretical - preferred by interpretivists = rapport can be built and verstehen can be gained = allows researcher to access ‘lived experience’ of particular social groups = increases validity

79
Q

Limitations of ethnography

A

Practical - time consuming = small sample researched = decrease generalisability

Ethical - sensitive topics = emotional harm as participants feel uncomfortable = reduce validity , safeguarding issues if participant is under 18 = reduces validity. Researcher immersed = harmful for researcher = dangerous situation = go native or lose objectivity = decrease validity

Theoretical - positivists do not favour because quantitative data is not gained = not objective or reliable = decrease reliability

80
Q

What are official statistics

A

Quantitative data collected by the government which is often gathered through other research methods such as questionnaires. Two of the biggest sources = Office for National Statistics and the Census

81
Q

Strengths of official statistics

A

Practical - not time consuming, largely representative can be accessed = increase generalisability

Ethical - official statistics = secondary data = following ethical guidelines s not an issue because research is already done. Data gathered by questionnaires = likely to be anonymous = responses are honest so increases validity

Theoretical - positivists would like = very objective and has been collected in a systematic, scientific and standardised way = increases reliability as it can be replicated easily

82
Q

Limitations of official statistics

A

Practical - may not represent whole picture, large sample = response rate can be low = reduce generalisability = wider claims cannot be made about whole population

Ethical - official statistics = open to political abuse = manipulated to look better = leads to harm as some groups are misrepresented = validity is reduced

Theoretical - quantitative data = tells us nothing Interpretivists would not like = low in validity as no verstehen

83
Q

What are non-official statistics

A

Quantitative data collected by a non-government source = often gathered through other research methods such as questionnaires

84
Q

Strengths of non-official statistics

A

-easy and cheap to access
-extremely up to date
Large representative sample as gathered by surveys
-trends over a long period of time can be seen

85
Q

Limitations of non-official statistics

A

-may not represent compete picture
-socially constructed = do not appear/happen
-tell us very little about human stories / interpretations

86
Q

What are longitudinal studies?

A

Research designed to collect data on a sample (of people/documents) on at least 2 occasions. Generically aim to generate trends and patterns = quantitative data found

87
Q

Strengths of longitudinal studies

A

Practical - lengthy time = gain access

Ethical- regular contact = create trust and rapport = increase validity = feel more comfortable so less risk of emotional harm

Theoretical - positivists would favour due to numerical data = trends are gained which increases reliability = same/similar results are found

88
Q

Limitations of longitudinal studies

A

Practical - high drop out rate = Time consuming, participant may get bored = tracking sample can be complex = reduce generalisability

Ethical - research is sensitive = emotional harm, participants may change answer = reduce validity

Theoretical - interpretivists less likely to use method because it provides quantitative data = assess patterns and trends = low in validity = deeper explanations are not gained

89
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Data carried out by someone else = quantitative or qualitative

90
Q

Strengths of secondary data

A

Practical - extremely cheap + easy to access = method is reliable as it is scientific = easy to replicate

Ethical - no participants are required = ethical guidelines set out by the BSA = easy to follow = increase reliability as easy to replicate

Theoretical - positives would favour numerical data as it increases reliability of data same/similar results are achieved

91
Q

Limitations of secondary data

A

Practical - statistics show trends but not explanations = validity is reduced : honest insight into social reality isn’t gained

Ethical - statistics open to political ‘abuse’ = manipulated incorrectly = groups being researched are not presented fairly = impacts validity and causes harm + researcher has no control over data collected

Theoretical - interpretivists say it provides little information about human stories or no behaviour has no feelings / opinions are given = decrease validity

92
Q

What is triangulation?

A

Use of more than one method to cross check validity of the data being collected e.g to counter the bias of using a single method or to increase confidence in the findings

93
Q

Strengths of triangulation

A

Practical - eliminates bias as range of methods = cross check data/findings = increases validity

Ethical - participants are fully represented y different methods = reduces emotional harm = increases validity

Theoretical - supported by positivists and interpretivists

94
Q

Limitations of triangulation

A

Practical - time consuming = will potentially reduce sample size = reduce representativeness and generalisability

Ethical - depending on methods, may be difficult to uphold some ethical guidelines = could impact validity of results

95
Q

What is reflexivity?

A

Generally used by interpretivists where they keep track of the strengths and weakness of the research to evaluate their work wit the aim of improving its validity

96
Q

Strengths of reflexivity

A

Practical - researcher thinks critically = ensures groups are examined effectively + gives true picture = increases validity

-reflexive = reviewing how role affects validity = look out for issues surrounding interviewer effect = respondents change their responses and give socially desirable ones

Theoretical - interpretivists would favour method as it aims to ensure a true insight into social reality = increase validity and verstehen about group is gained

97
Q

Limitations of reflexivity

A

Practical - time consuming = done on a regular basis = notes made about each time ensure it is done effectively

Theoretical - positivists may not be interested in reflexivity as methods used are often objective = less likelihood of there being biases to influence their results

98
Q

What is respondent validation?

A

Technique to check results from participants viewpoint. Results are returned to participants to check it accurately reflects their experiences/views

99
Q

Strengths of respondent validation

A

Practical - researcher gain feedback from participants who were involves in event = check how behaviour was interpreted = avoids bias + improves validity = ensures accuracy

Ethical - reduces emotional arm = participants able to check they they are being portrayed fairly and accurately = increase validity = accurate and fair representation of group being researched

Theoretical - interpretivists favour due to allowing researcher to develop rapport and verstehen = increase validity and people are more likely to be honest = deeper insight into their life

100
Q

Limitations of respondent validation

A

Practical - time consuming, check findings = time spent more wisely = reduce generalisability of findings overall as researchers don’t have time = can’t make wider claims

Ethical - could cause emotional harm = going over experiences = decrease validity as participants may change responses = lack of true insight

Theoretical - positivists would dislike method = not objective or scientific = decrease reliability as can’t be replicated

101
Q

What is methodological pluralism?

A

Mixed method approach where method are coming to provide fuller more detailed and comprehensive picture of the topic

102
Q

Strengths of methodological pluralism

A

Theoretical - interpretivists prefer as gives in depth examination = comprehensive insight into study area

Ethical - participants reflected more accurately = validity increased which reduces risk of emotional harm

Practical - eliminates bias = get true understanding = increases validity

103
Q

Limitations of methodological pluralism

A

Theoretical - positivists dislike = using mixed method = no comprehensive understanding =like to produce qualitative data = cannot be analysed objectively = deuce reliability

Ethical - depending on methods used, may be difficult to uphold ethical guidelines = could impact validity

Practical - time consuming = reduce sample size = reduce representativeness + generalisability

Sociology (14 decks)

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