Educational Policy Flashcards
To Raise Standards in Education
Education Reform Act
policies to raise standards in education. The national curriculum standardised education as it raised standards to ensure a certain level of education was accessed. SATs were used to raise standards for all students and act as a way of assessing quality of education and track progress = working at a certain level. League tables raised competitions between schools and colleges so standards were raised. Ofsted was used to check the level of education was suitable in schools through detailed inspections. Reports were then published publicly for parents to read.
To Raise Standards
Curriculum 2000
revised A-level curriculum was introduced. This was an entirely modular curriculum which required candidates to take modules as they progressed through the course. Only examined in a single session at the end of the course. It split A-level into AS and A2. Assessment periods would take place in January and June of both years of study. This was a flexible, broken-up process of studying which made workload less stressful and students would understand the content in more depth which increases standards of education.
To Raise Standards in Education
Academisation 2010
proposal to convert schools into academies which began in 2010. Schools or colleges were graded as “inadequate” by Ofsted and forced to be academies. LEAs (local education authorities) were removed from the funding process which put funding in the hands of the central government. Local sponsors are exonerated to provide additional funding (for tax benefits) and schools can become part of a multi-academy trust (MAT) where several schools pool resources and share good practice. Schools gain autonomy over content they teach and teachers they employ. They have control to push for high standards.
To Raise Standards in Education
GCSE and A Level Reform 2015
reformed A-levels, undoing Curriculum 2000. Assessments are mainly by exam with other types of assessment used only where they are needed to test essential skills. Assessments will take place at the end of the course and courses will no longer be divided into modules with no exams in January. AS and A levels will be decoupled meaning that AS results wont count towards A level. AS can be designed to be taught alongside. Content for new A levels has been reviewed and updated. Universities play a greater role in this for new qualifications than they did previously. With the aim of raising standards = focus on application of knowledge in the exams.
Criticism of policies to raise standards in education: Competition benefits he richest in society
- Gerwitz
-middle classes were much better able to take advantage of school choice as a result of their possession of cultural capital. Privileged school choosers were the middle class parents who use economic and cultural capital to gain educational capital for their children which gives them a full advantage of the choices open to them. Economic capital = able to afford to move their children around the education system so that they could get the best deal out of it such as travelling costs to get children into better schools. Semi-skilled chooser: working class but ambitious for their children. As they don’t have the cultural capital, they find it hard to understand the education market and rely on people’s opinions about schools. Disconnected choosers are working class parents who are restricted by lack of economic and cultural capital which made it difficult to understand school admission procedures and looked at safety and facilities rather than league tables. They had no money to travel to a school of their choice. This illustrates that an increase in house competition between schools will result in the best schools forming in the most affluent areas (where privileged skilled choosers will go) which means that standards are only raised in certain areas.
Criticism of policies used to raise standards in education: They raise standards but only for privileged students, not all - education is a middle class institution where this culture is rewarded.
-Bourdieu
-formal education was created and continued to be run by middle and upper class bureaucrats and politicians and is designed to incorporate middle class values as students with higher degrees of cultural capital are more likely to be successful in education (in terms of communication and language). Working class children cannot contextualise their learning like middle class children can as middle class parents can help their children through transmitting social and cultural capital. This means that it does not matter if efforts are made to raise the standards in education without total reform, working class children simply do not have the cultural capital meaning that they are required to take advantage of the ‘opportunities’ provided to them by new policies.
Criticism of policies used to raise standards in education: High focus on academic skills ends up prioritising certain subjects and courses and neglects students with vocational skills
-Davis and Moore
-education sorts and sifts people into the right roles based on their skills. Most skilled people are positioned for the most functionally important jobs. The less skilled people still have to receive education so that they are prepared for the less functionally important jobs but this does not mean that they are not crucial for society. Policies that aim to raise standards of education prioritise academic skills and subjects and can often neglect students with more vocational skills. Students may not utilise skills that are required to participate in the lesser (yet still important) roles of society meaning that overall, society suffers.
Criticism of using policies to raise standards in education: Makes formal education solely focused on outcomes rather than the value of education in itself
-Illich
-we should de-school society by getting rid of formal education altogether as education has become too managerial. It has become performance based and teaching is too focused on passing exams and not enrichening a young person’s life. Young people should be taught by people with the knowledge, skills and enthusiasm for a particular area as well as using learning webs which are people who want to learn something so are put in contact with relevant people and want to teach something so they could then learn together in an informal way. Other people should not dictate to us what we need to learn but we should learn what we find interesting and useful. This means that policies that aim to raise standards only raise standards from the point of the government. This does not mean that young people are more educated.
To Provide Equality of opportunity
Education Reform Act (National Curriculum)
The National Curriculum offered a standardised education for all students with the aim of raising standards to ensure a certain level of education was accessed. This gave universal access to key subjects with core ones such as English, Maths and Science and foundation subjects like History, Geography and Arts. This ensured that students from different regions and socioeconomic backgrounds had access to the same education. Assessment and accountability: curriculum was aligned with standardised assessments such as national tests at key stages. This helped monitor student’s progress on an equal basis and ensure educational standards were upheld across all schools, giving every student a fair chance to demonstrate their abilities.
To Provide Equality of Opportunity
Sure Start 2000
to work with parents-to-be, parents and children to provide for the physical, intellectual and social development of babies and young children. This consisted of ‘sure start’ centres which target families from lower class backgrounds. The idea was to compensate for children who may find themselves academically behind already by the time they reach school. By giving them opportunities to be more school-ready, these children may be able to harness their potential and do better in school.
To Provide equality of opportunity
City Academies 2000
created by Labour but popularised by the coalition. Was funded directly by the central government, removal of LEAs, additional funding from local businesses and organisations. It was originally intended to only apply to failing schools which would often be in cities and were designed to help improve lower-income and ethnic minority student performance. This is because academies have a degree of autonomy which allows them to teach a curriculum which is more relevant to their learners.
To Porvide Equality of Opportunity
Pupil Premium 2011
a grant that provides schools with increased funding to help improve educational outcomes for disadvantaged pupils in state-funded schools in England. For students eligible for free school meals or have been in the past 6 years, including children looked after by local authorities, referred to as looked after children. It currently works out between £1000-£1500 (more provided in primary education than secondary). Its two main purposes = give schools extra funding that can be allocated to the PP students by the way of bursaries to give them better access to educational resources and to financially incentivise schools enrolling students from poorer backgrounds.
Criticisms of policies used to provide equality of opportunity: Education remains a system of social division, not social mobility
-Wragg
-education system as a ‘Victorian railway carriage’. There is a set pathway and depending on your social class your ‘route’ is predetermined and cannot be altered. 1st class = to oxford and cambridge. 2nd class = ‘outstanding’ schools then onto russell group universities. 3rd class = poor performing schools = no further education colleges and polytechnic universities at best. Education is therefore a system of social closure that by its very nature excludes people from poorer social backgrounds, regardless of policies in place in an attempt to make it inclusive. Just 1% of people from low socioeconomic backgrounds are granted scholarships to independent schools, so equality of opportunity cannot be achieved regardless of policies put in place to try and lessen the gap between the rich and the poor.
Criticisms of policies used to provide equality of opportunity: Competition benefits the richest in society.
-Gerwitz
-middle classes were much better able to take advantage of school choice as a result of their possession of cultural capital. Privileged school choosers were the middle class parents who use economic and cultural capital to gain educational capital for their children which gives them a full advantage of the choices open to them. Economic capital = able to afford to move their children around the education system so that they could get the best deal out of it such as travelling costs to get children into better schools. Semi-skilled chooser: working class but ambitious for their children. As they don’t have the cultural capital, they find it hard to understand the education market and rely on people’s opinions about schools. Disconnected choosers are working class parents who are restricted by lack of economic and cultural capital which made it difficult to understand school admission procedures and looked at safety and facilities rather than league tables. They had no money to travel to a school of their choice. This illustrates that an increase in house competition between schools will result in the best schools forming in the most affluent areas (where privileged skilled choosers will go) which means that standards are only raised in certain areas
Criticisms of policies used to provide equality of opportunity: they raise standards but only for privileged students, not for all - education is a middle class institutions where this culture is rewarded.
-Bourdieu
-formal education was created and continued to be run by middle and upper class bureaucrats and politicians and is designed to incorporate middle class values as students with higher degrees of cultural capital are more likely to be successful in education (in terms of communication and language). Working class children cannot contextualise their learning like middle class children can as middle class parents can help their children through transmitting social and cultural capital. This means that it does not matter if efforts are made to raise the standards in education without total reform, working class children simply do not have the cultural capital meaning that they are required to take advantage of the ‘opportunities’ provided to them by new policies.
Criticisms of policies used to provide equality of opportunity: providing equality of opportunity will make education worse for those who are gifted. ‘Society (and education) is meritocratic’
-Murray
-education has lost its sense of meritocracy and is therefore failing those who are most gifted. In assuming that less intellectually gifted students could achieve the same outcomes as those who are, those who are will suffer. Education asks too much from students at the bottom of the intellectual pile, asks the wrong things from those in the middle and asks too little for those at the top. This culminates in too many people going to uni which devalues higher education degrees. This is very bad as Murray feels society is fundamentally dependent on how well educated the academically gifted are. We should simply accept that not everyone has the potential to be anything they want to be, and divert our resources away from trying to provide equality of opportunity = prioritise best possible standard of education for those most likely to get the most out of it
Policies used to provide diversity, choice and competition
New Vocationalism 1980s onwards
YTS (youth training schemes) training offered to NEETS: one year course for those who had just left school. If young people did not accept this training their benefits (job seekers allowance) were taken away from them. YOP (youth opportunities programme in 1978 - 6 month programme that included elements of work experience and ‘off the job’ training, using in FE colleges. NVQs - on the job training, not seen in the same light as academic qualifications, popular with trades jobs: plumber, electrician, carpenter. GNVQs - training in key sectors such as health and octal care, leisure and tourism. Enables students to develop skills for workplace and these were gained in schools and colleges
Policies used to provide diversity, choice and competition
Educational Reform Act 1988 - National Curriculum, League Tables, Ofsted
League tables = raised competitions between schools and colleges, therefore standards were raised as competition was created to be he best. Schools were increasingly marketised and compared in these league tables. An element of choice was introduced where parents could specify which school was their preferred choice. There was an ‘open enrolment’ (school open days, prospectus, websites - sold like products)
Ofsted = quality assurance body created to check the level of education was suitable in schools through detailed and rigorous inspections. Reports then published publicly for parents to read.
Policies used to provide diversity, choice and competition
Specialist Schools 2002
empowered secondary school comprehensives to become specialised in a specific area of academic interest e.g science, PE. This application would have to be supported by a statement as to why this area was an area of specialism in the school and would then result in a formal status and increased funding for resources and facilities in those subjects. this would therefore give parents increased choice over the kind of school they sent their children to, possibly wanting to prioritise one area area over another
Policies used to provide diversity, choice and competition
Academisation and free schools 2010
proposal to convert schools into academies where LEAs are removed from the funding process and places funding directly into the hands of the central government. local sponsors re encouraged to provide additional funding (for tax benefits) and schools can become part of a multi-academy trust (MAT) where several schools pool resources. schools gain autonomy over the content they teach and teachers they employ. The idea was that this would allow schools more autonomy and control to push for higher standards. free schools = similar to academies but completely free from following the national curriculum, opened in areas it was needed. they are state funded, set up by parents and often parents and community leaders are the teachers (regardless of qualifications)
Criticisms of policies used to provide diversity, choice and competition: Vocational training does not prepare students for work.
-Green
-youth trainees in vocational education were being taught basic skills related to unskilled, insecure, low paid jobs in the retail sector such as supermarket shelf filling rather than craft skills. the hidden curriculum of youth training and vocational courses transmits the message that ‘ good attitude’ and discipline are more important than the acquisition of skills. YTS and GNVQs. legitimise traditional class divisions as they were based on the idea that the m/c should be educated (by A-Levels) and the w/c and ethnic minorites should be trained in basic vocational. skills creating a new ‘bipartism’.
Criticisms of policies used to provide diversity, choice and competition: Competition benefits the richest society
-Gerwitz
-middle classes were much better able to take advantage of school choice as a result of their possession of cultural capital. Privileged school choosers were the middle class parents who use economic and cultural capital to gain educational capital for their children which gives them a full advantage of the choices open to them. Economic capital = able to afford to move their children around the education system so that they could get the best deal out of it such as travelling costs to get children into better schools. Semi-skilled chooser: working class but ambitious for their children. As they don’t have the cultural capital, they find it hard to understand the education market and rely on people’s opinions about schools. Disconnected choosers are working class parents who are restricted by lack of economic and cultural capital which made it difficult to understand school admission procedures and looked at safety and facilities rather than league tables. They had no money to travel to a school of their choice. This illustrates that an increase in house competition between schools will result in the best schools forming in the most affluent areas (where privileged skilled choosers will go) which means that standards are only raised in certain areas
Criticism of policies used to create diversity, choice and competition: Academies are not really providing diversity, they are a way of cutting costs
-National Education Union
-common criticism of academisation is that it is a policy implemented for financial reasons, disguising itself as. a policy and that tries to provide diversity, choice and raising standards.. likelihood is that academisation is a stern measure used to limit governmental funding of state education. as by removing LEA involvement, central government has more control over spending. encouraging schools to join MATS allows for the removal of individual. support staff departments e.g finance and . NEU found in academies that less money was spent on teacher salaries and student support. Students are not more likely to have higher attainment, students. Are more likely to be taught by an unqualified teacher
Criticism of polices used to provide diversity, choice and competition: poorer people are less able to exercise ‘choice’ because they cannot afford to move house or travel to better schools.
-Millar
-There is a lot of standardisation in educational provision which does not benefits all students. Most parents want a good school so choice creates uneasy conceptions (structural obstacles). Government is focussed now on academies and free schools. Selection of schools = reduces ability to exert actual free choice and many schools have partial selection. Academically selective and faith schools take less FSM and EM pupils than other comprehensives
Educational policy and class
Sure Start 2000
associated with compensatory education- set up with parents to be, parents and children to provide for the physical, intellectual and social development of babies and young children. Consisted of sure start centres targeting families from lower class backgrounds to compensate for children who find themselves academically behind by the time they reach school so gives them opportunities to be more school ready.
Educational policy and class
Educational Maintenance Allowance 2004
financial scheme for students 16-19 whose parents have low taxable income. For those doing at least 12 hours of weekly guided learning on further education courses (e.g A-levels) students receive maximum of £30 a week if meeting hours. Designed to encourage them to stay in education and get higher qualifications than GCSEs.
Educational policy and class
City Academies 2000
first version of academies funded by the central government with additional funding from local businesses/organisations. Originally intended to only apply to failing schools often be in cities and we’re designed to help lower income and ethnic minority student performance. As academies have sense of autonomy allows them to teach a curriculum that is more relevant to their learners to improve student performance.
Educational Policy and Class
Pupil Premium 2011
to ensure better opportunities for working class children. Pupil premium is a grant that provides a school with increased funding to improve educational outcomes for disadvantaged pupils in state-funded schools in England. For students eligible for free school meals or have been eligible in the last 6 years including children looked after by local authorities. Works out between £1000-£1500 (more money for primary than secondary students.) two purposes = give these streets better access to education resources, financially incentivise schools enrolling students from poorer backgrounds
Criticism of educational policy and class: education remains a system of social division, not social mobility
-Wragg
-education system as ‘Victorian railway carriage’ there is a set pathway and depending on your social class your ‘route’ is predetermined and cannot be altered. 1st class = onto Oxford and Cambridge, 2nd class = Russel group unis 3rd class = polytechnic unis or FE colleges. Educations is a system of social closure that by its nature excludes people from poorer backgrounds regardless of attempts to make it inclusive - just 1% of people from low socioeconomic backgrounds are granted scholarships to independent schools.
Criticism of educational policy and social class: the poorest in society still get the worst educational provision
-Gerwitz
-M/c parents were able to take more advantage of school choice as a result of cultural capital. 3 types of parents : privileged skilled choosers middle class parents who use economic and cultural capital to gain educational capital for their children which gives them a full advantage of the choices open to them. Economic capital = able to afford to move their children around the education system so that they could get the best deal out of it such as travelling costs to get children into better schools. Semi-skilled chooser: working class but ambitious for their children. As they don’t have the cultural capital, they find it hard to understand the education market and rely on people’s opinions about schools. Disconnected choosers are working class parents who are restricted by lack of economic and cultural capital which made it difficult to understand school admission procedures and looked at safety and facilities rather than league tables. They had no money to travel to a school of their choice. This illustrates that an increase in house competition between schools will result in the best schools forming in the most affluent areas (where privileged skilled choosers will go) which means that standards are only raised in certain areas.
Criticism of educational policy and social class: working classes to not have the cultural capital to make the most out of education
-Bourdieu
-Education is created and run by the MC and UC politicians designed to include MC values. Means students with a higher cultural capital are more successful in education - know the right values (communication, language, interpretation) WC children cannot contextualise their learning like MC as MC parents help children by transmitting their social and cultural capital (revision, practice, work experience)
Criticism of educational policy and social class: High focused on academic skills - prioritises certain subjects and courses and neglects vocational skills
-Davis and Moore
-Role allocation: education sifts and sorts people into the right roles based on their skills (both high and low). Most skilled are positioned for most functionally important jobs, less skilled still have to receive education so they are prepared for less functionally important jobs which are still crucial for society.
Educational policy and gender (Girls)
GIST AND WISE 1980s and onwards
designed to raise awareness of gender inequalities in education and encourage women and girls to study science and technology subjects which are typically male dominated. This included arranging female scientists to visit schools, create work experience opportunities for girls in science and engineering fields, provide better career advice and revise curriculum to be less excluding girls.
Educational policy and gender (girls)
The Educational Reform Act 1988 - The National Curriculum
offered a standardised education for all students regardless of gender. Science became compulsory up to GCSE level meaning girls gained a much higher level of scientific knowledge and skills. Meant boys and girls were no longer segregated in subject choices - girls traditionally would study childcare, cooking, needlework whereas boys would study woodwork
Educational policy and gender (girls)
introduction of GCSEs and Coursework 1986
these replaced O-Levels. Introduced coursework -and has been argued that girls studying habits are conducive to long form assessment model- as they are more organised and spend more time on their coursework.
Educational policy and gender (girls)
Curriculum 2000
this broadened subject choices for girls as well as more STEM participation. It also addressed the gender gap in some subjects showing the reforms emphasised flexibility and choice enabling more equal educational opportunities for girls alongside boys.
Educational policy and gender (boys)
Playing for success 1997
a national out-of-school-hours initiative in partnership with sports clubs, set up to raise literacy, numeracy and ICT skills in children who have unrealised potential, using the motivation of sport to improve young people’s attitudes to learning and motivation in school. Pupils attend the centres after school for around 20 hours during a period of around 10 weeks aimed at year 6-9 students.
Educational policy and gender (boys)
GCSE and A Level Reform 2015
decoupled AS and A2 exams and put all exams at the end of a 2 year linear course. This means that boys are more likely to do better as boys generally speaking are stronger in exams.
Educational policy and gender (boys)
Breakthrough Programme 2005
introduced mentoring, after school classes and e-tutorials for teenage boys in an attempt to improve their exam performance. This could include matching teaching styles with boys learning skills, help improve commitment and enthusiasm, making lessons more hand-on, and choosing texts that were more user friendly for boys.
Educational policy and gender (boys)
Curriculum 2000
Introduced a modular system with continuous assessment, allowing them more opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. The reform also offered greater flexibility in subject choices (e.g. Vocational subjects, Business Studies and IT),,= boys pursue subjects that suited their interests and strengths. It aimed to address boys’ underachievement by providing alternative pathways to success and increased engagement. Additionally, the reform improved retention rates by making education more accessible and tailored to boys’ diverse needs.
Criticisms of educational policy and gender (girls): Patriarchal values are still transmitted via the hidden curriculum
-Heaton and Lawson
-The hidden curriculum is a major source of gender socialisation and operates in 5 ways. Books and textbooks (women portrayed as dependent on men and there’s an absence of women in textbooks). Female students being uncomfortable in certain subjects. Teacher expectations, patriarchal curriculum and lack of positive role models with more teachers being female but more managers in education being male.
Criticisms of Educational policy and gender (girls): Subject choices at GCSE and A-Level remain gendered
-Colley
-School subjects affected by perception of gender roles (whether pupils have been socialised into a typically masculine or feminine identity), subject preferences (perception of the type of tasks and activities required by the subject - discussion vs independent work), learning environment (mixed sex or same sex school).
Criticisms of Educational policy and gender (girls): It doesn’t matter if efforts have been made to improve outcomes for girls in school if women remain disadvantaged in wider society
-Arnot
-girls were achieving highly in academics but this did not always lead to equal opportunities in the job market as gendered divisions still limited their career choices. + feminization of education = favoured traits like communication, did not align with the expectations of the male-dominated job market
Criticism of educational policy and gender (girls): changing policy does not alter structural inequalities, gender socialisation and cultural impacts on attainment and careers
-Heather Joshi
-intersection of gender, family background and social class play a significant role in shaping educational outcomes. Women from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may face greater barriers to accessing higher education and achieving economic success, even if they perform well academically. This shows that regardless of policy change, a range of factors can still negatively impact potential achievements - She stresses the importance of addressing gender stereotypes and structural inequalities that continue to affect women’s education and therefore career prospects.
Criticism of educational policy and gender (boys): it doesn’t matter if efforts have been made to improve outcomes for boys outside of school if boys remain disadvantaged within school
-Epstein
-More policies need to be put in place to challenge labelling and challenges boys face within school to improve their achievement
Criticisms of educational policy and gender (boys): However girls still outperform boys at A-Level and so more needs to be done
-Burns and Bracey
-Changing the design of the course does not impact the amount of time girls and boys spend revising outside of school. Girls put more effort into homework and unlike boys are prepared to draft and redraft assignments. Girls mature earlier, work harder and are more motivated than boys - will revise more. = policies don’t look at the amount of work boys do and therefore fail to fully close the gap.
Criticism of educational policy and gender (boys): not successful as despite policies being implemented to make education more relevant to them, boys may deliberately not do as well as they do not want to be excluded by their peers
-Frosh et al
-Boys felt they risked being labelled as ‘gay’ by male peers if they work hard leading them to act masculine and anti-school. Underachieve in school to experience inclusion amongst peers. Therefore, it does not matter if the policy changes as societal norms around education being seen as ‘girly’ need to change for policies to have an impact.
Criticism of educational policy and gender (boys): Certain policies did not tackle boys lack of engagement with certain subjects and education is still an agent that reinforces stereotypes meaning education/subject choices are not broad and diverse
-James and Coffey examined the impacts of AS levels (introduced under curriculum 2000) in relation to gender
-They stated that while boys may perform well in subjects like mathematics, they might struggle with other areas of schooling due to social pressures or a lack of engagement with other subjects that are often seen as less masculine.
Educational policy and ethnicity
-Multicultural Education 1985
aims to make education more inclusive of ethnic minority students. Strategies included: classes to education on languages, religions, and diets of ethnic minorities and changing textbooks to represent ethnic minorities.
Educational policy and ethnicity
City Academies 2000
still funded by the central government with additional funding from local businesses/organisations. Designed to help lower income and ethnic minority student performance at failing schools. As academies have a sense of autonomy, allows them to teach a curriculum that is more relevant to their learners to improve student performance.
Educational policy and ethnicity
Implementation of British Values 2014
ofsted framework indicated every lesson needs to incorporate British value into teaching. Most relevant being ‘tolerance of different cultures and religions’. Idea to develop a sense of \british identity among the younger generation of multiple cultures.
Educational policy and ethnicity
Sure Start 2000
associated with compensatory education. set up with parents to be, parents and children to provide for the physical, intellectual and social development of babies and young children. Consisted of sure start centres targeting families from lower class backgrounds to compensate for children who find themselves academically behind by the time they reach school so gives them opportunities to be more school ready.
Criticisms of educational policy and ethnicity: despite these changes, the curriculum still remains ethnocentric
-Coard
-White history and literature dominate the curriculum and teachers were found to be dismissive of non-standard English as a way of speaking. Hidden and overt messages transferred to students - suggesting the culture of ethnic minorities is devalued and students become demotivated as cannot fully identify with course content.
Criticisms of educational policy and ethnicity: Negative labelling of minorities undermines any gains from multicultural education
-Gillborn
-Education system is institutionally racist. Teachers racist assumptions led them to believe black male students would cause trouble, leading teachers to see their behaviour as challenging. Teachers would confront behaviour and this would build resentment and escalate problems. They found disproportionate amounts of black students were not entered for higher tier exams leading to lower achievement.
Criticism of educational policy and ethnicity: Ethnic minorities are more likely to be poorer and therefore disproportionately represented in poorer performing schools.
-Gerwitz
-The poorest in society still get the worst educational provision
M/c parents were able to take more advantage of school choice as a result of cultural capital. 3 types of parents : privileged skilled choosers middle class parents who use economic and cultural capital to gain educational capital for their children which gives them a full advantage of the choices open to them. Economic capital = able to afford to move their children around the education system so that they could get the best deal out of it such as travelling costs to get children into better schools. Semi-skilled chooser: working class but ambitious for their children. As they don’t have the cultural capital, they find it hard to understand the education market and rely on people’s opinions about schools. Disconnected choosers are working class parents who are restricted by lack of economic and cultural capital which made it difficult to understand school admission procedures and looked at safety and facilities rather than league tables. They had no money to travel to a school of their choice. This illustrates that an increase in house competition between schools will result in the best schools forming in the most affluent areas (where privileged skilled choosers will go) which means that standards are only raised in certain areas.
Criticisms of educational policy and ethnicity: only raises standards for privileged students, not all
-Bourdieu
- Ethnic minorities likely to be among the working class
working classes do not have the cultural capital to make the most of education.
Education is created and run by the MC and UC politicians designed to include MC values. Means students with a higher cultural capital are more successful in education - know the right values (communication, language, interpretation) WC children cannot contextualise their learning like MC as MC parents help children by transmitting their social and cultural capital (revision, practice, work experience)
Preparing students for the workplace by meeting the needs of the economy
New Vocationalism 1980s onwards
YTS (youth training schemes) training offered to NEETS: one year course for those who had just left school. If young people did not accept this training their benefits (job seekers allowance) were taken away from them. YOP (youth opportunities programme in 1978 - 6 month programme that included elements of work experience and ‘off the job’ training, using in FE colleges. NVQs - on the job training, not seen in the same light as academic qualifications, popular with trades jobs: plumber, electrician, carpenter. GNVQs - training in key sectors such as health and octal care, leisure and tourism. Enables students to develop skills for workplace and these were gained in schools and colleges
Preparing students for the workplace by meeting the needs of the economy
New Deal 1988
aimed to provide training, subsidised employment and voluntary work to NEETS. Began with ‘Gateway’ which helped people with interview and job searching skills. If they could not get a job following this training they had to choose to re-train in full time education for a year or join the voluntary sector. If refused - benefits taken away. Aimed at ensuring those who had bad education experience still had choices that could make them employable.
Preparing students for the workplace by meeting the needs of the economy
Apprenticeships 2015 onwards
ability to ‘earn whilst you learn’ as it trained people on the ‘skills employers want’. Cameron wanted to make them more accessible to young people and align closely with the needs of businesses. This approach was intended to reduce youth unemployment and provide an alternative to university for those looking to build a career through hands on learning.
Preparing students for the workplace by meeting the needs of the economy
Higher Apprenticeship Diplomas 2010
work based learning program designed to help individuals gain advanced skills and knowledge in specific industries while earning a qualification. It combines practical on the job training with academic learning, allowing apprentices to develop expertise in fields such as engineering, it and business management. Takes 2-4 years to complete ad is an alternative to traditional uni course.
Criticisms of preparing students for the workplace by meeting the needs of the economy: vocational training does not prepare students for work
-Green
-youth trainees in vocational education were being taught basic skills related to unskilled, insecure, low paid jobs in the retail sector such as supermarket shelf filling rather than craft skills. the hidden curriculum of youth training and vocational courses transmits the message that ‘ good attitude’ and discipline are more important than the acquisition of skills. YTS and GNVQs. legitimise traditional class divisions as they were based on the idea that the m/c should be educated (by A-Levels) and the w/c and ethnic minorites should be trained in basic vocational. skills creating a new ‘bipartism’.
Criticisms of preparing students for the workplace by meeting the needs of the economy: Vocational training is by design, not intended to provide social mobility
-Cohen
-Real function of youth training was to cultivate ‘good’ attitudes in young people. E.g work discipline and the acceptance of a likely future of low paid and unskilled work with frequent job changes. He suggests that youth training de-skilled rather than re-skilled the workforce. Youth training was about social control because it was a way of screening young people for recruitment - employers were able to choose their recruits from a pool of cheap trainees. Shows choice for learners who lack academic skills are not ‘good’ choices that will likely offer nothing in terms of social mobility.
Criticisms of preparing students for the workplace by meeting the needs of the economy: there is not a consistent positive outcome for all students who do apprenticeships
-Davies and Biesta
-Paper on vocational education for 14-19 year olds highlights the mixed experiences students have in these programs. In terms of diplomas, some benefit from valuable training that leads to employment and supports the economy, others face dull, repetitive tasks, often working as cheap labour and contributing to inflated unemployment statistics. They critique vocational qualifications arguing that they don’t teach practical skills and primarily serve to occupy time (of unemployed people). The authors suggest that these systems may reinforce social divisions, with middle class students following academic paths and working class students being channeled into vocational tracks.
Criticisms of preparing students for the workplace by meeting the needs of the economy: vocational training does not provide individuals with enough of an education to make critical decisions about the society they live in
-Evans
-The quality of training offered in vocational education was poor. He claims that low skilled workers revived poor training while the well qualified received more. Evan’s claims that vocational education in capitalist societies often served the interests of the ruling class by preparing workers to fit into an exploitative economic system. He believed that vocational education was designed to train workers in ways that serve the needs of capitalism but at the same time it often lacked depth and didn’t teach critical thinking or meaningful skills.
