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Psychology A-Level > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Academic Psychology

A

involves coming up with and discussing theories

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2
Q

Aim

A

a statement about what you are researching; the purpose of the experiment

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3
Q

Applied Psychology

A

involves testing theories and doing experiments

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4
Q

ANOVA Analyses

A

a statistical test used to assess the difference between the means of more than two groups

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5
Q

Bar Chart

A

a graph that shows the data in the form of categories that the researcher wishes to compare

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6
Q

Behavioural Categories

A

key behaviours or collections of behaviour that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record

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7
Q

Bonobo Chimpanzee

A

closest genetic relative to humans

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8
Q

Briefing

A

before the study, the researcher must obtain consent and ensure the participants understand the task and that they can withdraw consent at any time. The participant must sign and date, confirming they fully consent

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9
Q

Case Studies

A

an in-depth detailed examination of a particular case within a real-world context

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10
Q

Causal Relationship

A

where one thing causes another

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11
Q

Cause and Effect Relationships

A

where changing the dependent variable is responsible for any change to the independent variable

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12
Q

Charlton et al (2000)

A

television was first introduced to St Helena, an island, in 2000, so Charlton went there to perform a series of observations on the children there to see the effect it would have on their behaviour; this was a natural experiment as it was happening anyway

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13
Q

Closed Questions

A

questions where there are fixed choices of responses and generate quantitative data

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14
Q

Chi Squared Test

A

difference, unrelated, nominal

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15
Q

Concurrent Validity

A

comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they produce similar results; if they do then the new test has concurrent validity

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16
Q

Confederates

A

actors involved in experiments

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17
Q

Confidentiality

A

all data should be confidential and all participants should be anonymous and unidentifiable unless prior informed consent has been given. This can be problematic in case studies as procedures should routinely anonymise participants through use of numbers and not recording names

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18
Q

Confounding Variables

A

have affected results because they haven’t been controlled

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19
Q

Content Analysis

A

technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written data into categories, converting qualitative data into quantitative data

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20
Q

Control

A

methods of reducing confounding variables

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21
Q

Cost-Benefit Analysis

A

deciding whether the value of research outweighs potential ethical problems, so if the risks are low but the value of the research is high then the study is likely to go ahead

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22
Q

Counterbalancing

A

where half of the participants do condition one then two, and half do condition two then one, to counter any effect of the order the conditions were presented in

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23
Q

Random Allocation

A

means to randomly allocate participants to conditions based on no prejudgements

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24
Q

Randomisation

A

where materials are made random as opposed to participants

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25
Q

Standardisation

A

all participants are given exactly the same instructions, in the same room, with the same time, where the only difference is the IV

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26
Q

Control Condition

A

a standard against which other results can be compared, as this standard lacks any manipulation of the independent variable

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27
Q

Control Group

A

a group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment

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28
Q

Controlled Observation

A

an observation study where the researchers control some variables, often takes place in a laboratory setting

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29
Q

Correctional Analysis

A

a mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two co-variables are related

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30
Q

Correlations

A

checks to see if two numbers are related or corresponding in some way

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31
Q

Co-Variables

A

the variables investigated in correlation

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32
Q

Covert Observation

A

also known as an undisclosed observation a the participants do not know their behaviour is being observed

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33
Q

Critical Value

A

the value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be accepted

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34
Q

Cross-Sectional Study

A

studies that involve studying a group of people at one age and another group at another, instead of following the same group

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35
Q

Current Analysis

A

a set of techniques that deal in part with the unconscious mind, generally used when studying mental disorders

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36
Q

CV

A

Confounding Variable

any variables that affect the DV, that is not the IV and should have been controlled for, such as males being in one group and not the other

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37
Q

Debriefing

A

after the study, researchers should ensure that participants are returned to the their initial state and hence have been informed about the research they have participated in. They must explain the aims and nature of the study, explain any deceptions used, reassure the participants about their performance or behaviour, obtain feedback about the study, offer retrospective feedback, answer questions and widen public understanding of psychology

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38
Q

Deception

A

deception should be avoided if at all possible, especially where it would raise other issues such as whether the deception would cause stress or whether participants would participate if they knew the true nature of the experiment. The APA states that deception is only permitted where research is very important and no alternative method is available

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39
Q

Demand Characteristics

A

when participants try to behave in the way experimenters want them to

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40
Q

Deontological Ethics

A

the correctness of an action lies in itself, not the consequences

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41
Q

Descriptive Statistics

A

analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarise data in a meaningful way

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42
Q

Difference Effects

A

where there is a difference between participants in each group

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43
Q

Difference Tests

A

used to test whether one condition is harder than another

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44
Q

Dispersion Measure

A

shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the range an the standard deviation

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45
Q

Double Blind Control

A

participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspects of the research design

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46
Q

Doubly-Subjective

A

happens in introspection, where subjective evidence is interpreted subjectively

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47
Q

DV

A

Dependent Variable

the variable you measure

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48
Q

Ecological Validity

A

a measure of how test performance predicts behaviour in real-world settings

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49
Q

Ethical Guidelines

A

issued by the British Psychological Society or equivalent professional bodies such as the APA and clarify what is ethically acceptable in psychological research

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50
Q

Ethical Issues

A

problems arising from conflict between what is necessary for our research and our moral obligation towards our participants

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51
Q

Ethics Committee

A

will assess all research proposals to decide whether there are any risks to participants or researchers, whether these are acceptable and to perform a cost-benefit analysis; if they approve, research can go ahead

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52
Q

EV

A

Extraneous Variable

any variable that affects the DV that are difficult to control, such as the weather

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53
Q

Evaluation Apprehension

A

participants’ behaviour is distorted as they fear being judged by observers

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54
Q

Event Sampling

A

a target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs

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55
Q

Experimental Group

A

the group that received the experimental treatment

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56
Q

External Validity

A

the extent to which the study’s results can be generalised beyond the research situation

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57
Q

Extraneous Variables

A

variables not being studied which may hinder results

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58
Q

Face Validity

A

a measure of how test performance appears effective in terms of its stated aims

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59
Q

Fatigue Effects

A

where a participant does worse on later conditions because they are tired

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60
Q

Festinger (1957)

A

Festinger carried out a covert naturalistic participant study in which he infiltrated a cult who prophesised the end of the world to observe their behaviour

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61
Q

Field Experiments

A

an experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV

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62
Q

Hawthorne Effect

A

refers to people’s tendency to behave differently when they become aware that they are being observed

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63
Q

Histogram

A

a graph that is used for continuous data, such as test scores, where there should be no space between bars, because data is continuous

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64
Q

Hypothesis

A

the prediction, using the aim but making the IV and DV measurable and testable

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65
Q

Correlation Hypothesis

A

hypothesis examining the relationship between two co-variables

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66
Q

Directional Hypothesis

A

hypothesis that is formed using previous research

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67
Q

Non-Directional Hypothesis

A

hypothesis where there has been no previous research in the area

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68
Q

Null Hypothesis

A

states that there will be no significant findings

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69
Q

Independent Groups

A

an experiment design whereby two groups and exposed to different experimental conditions

70
Q

Individual Effects

A

where groups are not the same to begin with

71
Q

Inferential Statistics

A

ways of analysing data using statistical tests that allow the researcher to make conclusions about whether a hypothesis was supported by the results

72
Q

Informed Consent

A

participants must be told about anything that might reasonably affect their willingness to participate. Consent can be withdrawn at any time, including during and after the study. For children under the age of eighteen, consent must be given by parents. The only exception is in observational studies, as informed consent is not required in these studies provided they are being done in a public place

73
Q

Internal Validity

A

a measure of whether results are just affected by changes in the independent variable in a cause-and-effect relationship or other variables too

74
Q

Inter-Observer Reliability

A

the extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way

75
Q

Internal Validity

A

in relation to the experiments, whether the results were due to the manipulation of the IV rather than other factors such as extraneous variables or demand characteristics

76
Q

Interval Data

A

data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale

77
Q

Investigator Effects

A

these result from the effects of a researcher’s behaviour and characteristics on an investigation

78
Q

Interviews

A

a type of self-report that involves an experimenter asking participants questions and recording their responses

79
Q

IV

A

Independent Variable

the variable you manipulate or look for a difference between

80
Q

James Patrick (1960s)

A

in the 1960s, a 26-year-old schoolteacher at a Scottish school, under the alias of James Patrick, went undercover with the help of one of his pupils to study the behaviour of teenagers in Glaswegian gangs

81
Q

Lab Experiments

A

an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV an measures the DV, the most heavily controlled form of experimental research, because other extraneous variables can be controlled

82
Q

Longitudinal Studies

A

studies that follow the same people over a period of time, meaning there are no participant variables to confound variables, therefore they have high internal validity

83
Q
A
84
Q

Mann-Whitney Test

A

difference, unrelated, ordinance

85
Q

Matched Pairs

A

an experimental design where pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables, such as age or IQ. One is placed into an experimental group, and one into a control group

86
Q

Mean

A

measure of the central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a set of data together and dividing by the total number of scores

87
Q

Measures of Central Tendancy

A

a measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies, such as a mean, media or mode

88
Q

Median

A

measure of central tendency calculated by arranging scores in a set of data from lowest to highest and finding the middle score

89
Q

Meta-Analysis

A

averaging out the results of multiple studies

90
Q

Methodological Issues

A

issues with method, a type of validity

91
Q

Mode

A

measure of central tendency which is the most frequently occurring score in a set of data

92
Q

Natural Experiments

A

studies where the experimenter cannot manipulate the independent variable, which leads to high ecological validity

93
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

an observation study conducted in the environment where the behaviour would normally occur

94
Q

Negative Correlation

A

a relationship exists between two co-variables where as one increases, the other decreases

95
Q

Nominal Data

A

frequency count data that consists of the number of participants falling into categories

96
Q

Normal Distribution

A

an arrangement of data that is symmetrical and forms a bell shaped pattern where the mean, median and mode all fall in the centre of the highest peak

97
Q

Observed Value

A

the value that you have obtained from conducting your statistical test

98
Q

Observer Bias

A

occurs when the observers know the aims of the study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations

99
Q

Observations

A

a research method that involves watching what people do

100
Q

Open Questions

A

questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any answer they like and generate qualitative data

101
Q

Operationalising Variable

A

this means clearly describing the variables in terms of how they will be manipulated or measured

102
Q

Operationalism

A

the process of making an IV and DV measurable

103
Q

Opportunity Sample

A

a sampling technique where participants are chosen because they are easily available

104
Q

Order Effects

A

can occur in repeated measures design and refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome

105
Q

Ordinal Level Data

A

data that is capable of being out of rank order

106
Q

Overt Observation

A

also known as disclosed observation as the participants have given their permission for their behaviour to be observed

107
Q

Participant Observation

A

observation studies where the researcher actually joins the group or takes part in the situation they are observing

108
Q

Pearson’s Test

A

correlation, related, interval

109
Q

Peer Review

A

before going to publication, a research report is sent to other psychologists who are knowledgeable in the research topic and check for any problems

110
Q

Pilot Study

A

a pre-run of the procedures of the study that is carried out before the main study used to check all materials and procedures work so that adjustments can be made if issues are found

111
Q

Population Validity

A

a measure of whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people, normally the whole population

112
Q

Positive Correlation

A

a relationship exists between two co-variables where as one increases, so does the other

113
Q

Practice Effects

A

where participants do better on later conditions because they have had the experience of doing earlier conditions

114
Q

Presumptive Consent

A

asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, and if yes, presume the sample would

115
Q

Primary Data

A

information that the researcher has collected themselves for a specific purpose

116
Q

Prior General Consent

A

before participants are recruited they are asked whether they would be prepared to take part in research where they might be deceived about the true purpose

117
Q

Privacy

A

participants’ right to privacy must be respected, especially since invasions of privacy may affect wellbeing and raise confidentiality issues. This includes respecting social and cultural variability, respecting that participants may be unwilling to answer certain questions. Psychologists should observe only public behaviour in public spaces

118
Q

Probability

A

how likely something is to happen, can be expressed as a decimal or percentage

119
Q

Protection from Harm

A

risk should be no more than participants would expect in everyday life. This includes both physical and psychological harm, such as stress or damage to self image. Participants should leave the study unchanged from how they entered it

120
Q

P-Value

A

shows the probability chance that something was caused by chance

121
Q

Qualitative Data

A

descriptive information that is expressed in words

122
Q

Quantitative Data

A

information that can be measured and written down with numbers

123
Q

Quasi Experiments

A

a type of natural experiment that contains a naturally occurring independent variable, whereby the independent variable is a difference between people that already exists

124
Q

Questionnaires

A

a type of self-report consisting of questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents

125
Q

Random Sampling

A

sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected

126
Q

Range

A

distance between the lowest and highest value in a set of scores and measure of dispersion which involves subtracting the lowest core from the highest score in a set of data

127
Q

Related T Test

A

difference, related, interval

128
Q

Reliability

A

the extent to which a study is consistent

129
Q

Response Bias

A

a general term for a wide range of tendencies for participants to respond inaccurately or falsely to questions

130
Q

Repeated Measure

A

an experiment design where the same participants take part in each condition of the experiment, meaning each condition of the experiment uses the same group of people

131
Q

Representative Sample

A

a sample that closely matched the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics

132
Q

Retrospective Consent

A

once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are not happy

133
Q

Right to Withdraw

A

ethical guidelines state that participants in experiments have a right to withdraw at any time, and must be reminded that they have that right to withdraw. This was an ethical issue with Zimbardo’s prison experiment, as Zimbardo did not remind participants that they could withdraw and gave the impression that they were unallowed to

134
Q

Sample

A

a group of people that are drawn from the target population to take part in a research investigation

135
Q

Scattergram

A

used to plot correlations where each pair of values is plotted against each other to see if there is a relationship between them

136
Q

Screw You Effect

A

when participants try to behave in the opposite way to what experimenters want

137
Q

Secondary Data

A

information that someone else has collected such as the work of other psychologists or government statistics

138
Q

Self-Corrective

A

meaning that scientific knowledge can be refined or abandoned later after further research

139
Q

Semi-Structured Interview

A

interview that has some pre-determined questions, but the interview can develop others in response to answers given by the participant

140
Q

Self Reports

A

a method of gathering data where participants provide information about themselves without interference from examiners

141
Q

Significance

A

if the result of a statistical test is significant it is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance

142
Q

Sign Test

A

a statistical test used to analyse the direction of differences of scores between the same or matched pairs of subjects under two experimental conditions; difference, related, nominal

143
Q

Single-Blind Control

A

participants are not told the true purpose of the research

144
Q

Skewed Distribution

A

an arrangement of data that is not symmetrical as data is clustered to one end of the distribution

145
Q

Social Desirability Bias

A

participants’ overall behaviour is distorted as they modify this in order to be seen in a positive light

146
Q

Spearman’s Rho Test

A

correlation, related, ordinance

147
Q

Standard Deviation

A

a measure of the average spread of scores around the mean and the greater the standard deviation the more spread out the scores are

148
Q

Standardised Instrunction

A

the instructions given to each participant are kept identical to hep prevent experimenter bias

149
Q

Standardised Procedures

A

in every step of the research all the participants are treated in exactly the same way and so all have the same experience

150
Q

Stratified Sample

A

a sampling technique where groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the target population

151
Q

Statistical Test

A

used to decide whether any pattern found in a set of data is significant or it was caused by chance

152
Q

Structured Interview

A

interview where the questions are fixed and the interviewer reads them out and records the responses

153
Q

Structured Observation

A

an observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants’ behaviour

154
Q

Systematic Sample

A

a sampling technique where every nth person in a list of the target population is selected

155
Q

Target Population

A

not necessarily the general population

156
Q

Temporal Validity

A

a measure of the validity of findings in relation to the progression of time

157
Q

Teleological Ethics

A

the correctness of an action is determined by its intended consequences

158
Q

Test-Retest Reliability

A

involves presenting the same participants with the same test or questionnaire on two separate occasions and seeing whether there is a positive correlation between the two

159
Q

Thematic Analysis

A

a method for analysing qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within the data

160
Q

Time Sampling

A

a way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of sixed time intervals

161
Q

Type 1 Error

A

a false positive, where you wrongly accept that the alternative or experimental hypothesis is true

162
Q

Type 2 Error

A

a false negative, where you wrongly accept that the null hypothesis is true

163
Q

Unrelated T Test

A

difference, unrelated, interval

164
Q

Unstructured Interviews

A

where the interviewer may have a list of topics or questions but has flexibility to lead the conversation further should participants give responses that lead to deeper or more detailed discussion

165
Q

Unstructured Observation

A

where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in as much detail as possible

166
Q

Utilitarian Ethics

A

a form of teleological ethics where moral correctness of the action is determined by its consequences for society as a whole, where the aim should be to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number of people, and psychological researchers usually take a utilitarian perspective but with some absolute prohibitions

167
Q

Validity

A

the extent to which a study is truthful

168
Q

Volunteer Sample

A

sampling technique where participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering an advertisement

169
Q

Wilcoxen Test

A

difference, related, ordinance

170
Q

WEIRD people

A

an acronym for Western, Education, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic people, often the only people experiments were done on in the past

Psychology A-Level (17 decks)

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