Research Methods Flashcards
Academic Psychology
involves coming up with and discussing theories
Aim
a statement about what you are researching; the purpose of the experiment
Applied Psychology
involves testing theories and doing experiments
ANOVA Analyses
a statistical test used to assess the difference between the means of more than two groups
Bar Chart
a graph that shows the data in the form of categories that the researcher wishes to compare
Behavioural Categories
key behaviours or collections of behaviour that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record
Bonobo Chimpanzee
closest genetic relative to humans
Briefing
before the study, the researcher must obtain consent and ensure the participants understand the task and that they can withdraw consent at any time. The participant must sign and date, confirming they fully consent
Case Studies
an in-depth detailed examination of a particular case within a real-world context
Causal Relationship
where one thing causes another
Cause and Effect Relationships
where changing the dependent variable is responsible for any change to the independent variable
Charlton et al (2000)
television was first introduced to St Helena, an island, in 2000, so Charlton went there to perform a series of observations on the children there to see the effect it would have on their behaviour; this was a natural experiment as it was happening anyway
Closed Questions
questions where there are fixed choices of responses and generate quantitative data
Chi Squared Test
difference, unrelated, nominal
Concurrent Validity
comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they produce similar results; if they do then the new test has concurrent validity
Confederates
actors involved in experiments
Confidentiality
all data should be confidential and all participants should be anonymous and unidentifiable unless prior informed consent has been given. This can be problematic in case studies as procedures should routinely anonymise participants through use of numbers and not recording names
Confounding Variables
have affected results because they haven’t been controlled
Content Analysis
technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written data into categories, converting qualitative data into quantitative data
Control
methods of reducing confounding variables
Cost-Benefit Analysis
deciding whether the value of research outweighs potential ethical problems, so if the risks are low but the value of the research is high then the study is likely to go ahead
Counterbalancing
where half of the participants do condition one then two, and half do condition two then one, to counter any effect of the order the conditions were presented in
Random Allocation
means to randomly allocate participants to conditions based on no prejudgements
Randomisation
where materials are made random as opposed to participants
Standardisation
all participants are given exactly the same instructions, in the same room, with the same time, where the only difference is the IV
Control Condition
a standard against which other results can be compared, as this standard lacks any manipulation of the independent variable
Control Group
a group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment
Controlled Observation
an observation study where the researchers control some variables, often takes place in a laboratory setting
Correctional Analysis
a mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two co-variables are related
Correlations
checks to see if two numbers are related or corresponding in some way
Co-Variables
the variables investigated in correlation
Covert Observation
also known as an undisclosed observation a the participants do not know their behaviour is being observed
Critical Value
the value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be accepted
Cross-Sectional Study
studies that involve studying a group of people at one age and another group at another, instead of following the same group
Current Analysis
a set of techniques that deal in part with the unconscious mind, generally used when studying mental disorders
CV
Confounding Variable
any variables that affect the DV, that is not the IV and should have been controlled for, such as males being in one group and not the other
Debriefing
after the study, researchers should ensure that participants are returned to the their initial state and hence have been informed about the research they have participated in. They must explain the aims and nature of the study, explain any deceptions used, reassure the participants about their performance or behaviour, obtain feedback about the study, offer retrospective feedback, answer questions and widen public understanding of psychology
Deception
deception should be avoided if at all possible, especially where it would raise other issues such as whether the deception would cause stress or whether participants would participate if they knew the true nature of the experiment. The APA states that deception is only permitted where research is very important and no alternative method is available
Deduction Model
involves reasoning and theory first, and finding instances to confirm this, eg Darwin’s theory
Demand Characteristics
when participants try to behave in the way experimenters want them to
Deontological Ethics
the correctness of an action lies in itself, not the consequences
Descriptive Statistics
analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarise data in a meaningful way
Difference Effects
where there is a difference between participants in each group
Difference Tests
used to test whether one condition is harder than another
Dispersion Measure
shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the range an the standard deviation
Double Blind Control
participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspects of the research design
Doubly-Subjective
happens in introspection, where subjective evidence is interpreted subjectively
DV
Dependent Variable
the variable you measure
Ecological Validity
a measure of how test performance predicts behaviour in real-world settings
Ethical Guidelines
issued by the British Psychological Society or equivalent professional bodies such as the APA and clarify what is ethically acceptable in psychological research
Ethical Issues
problems arising from conflict between what is necessary for our research and our moral obligation towards our participants
Ethics Committee
will assess all research proposals to decide whether there are any risks to participants or researchers, whether these are acceptable and to perform a cost-benefit analysis; if they approve, research can go ahead
EV
Extraneous Variable
any variable that affects the DV that are difficult to control, such as the weather
Evaluation Apprehension
participants’ behaviour is distorted as they fear being judged by observers
Event Sampling
a target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs
Experimental Group
the group that received the experimental treatment
External Validity
the extent to which the study’s results can be generalised beyond the research situation
Extraneous Variables
variables not being studied which may hinder results
Face Validity
a measure of how test performance appears effective in terms of its stated aims
Fatigue Effects
where a participant does worse on later conditions because they are tired
Festinger (1957)
Festinger carried out a covert naturalistic participant study in which he infiltrated a cult who prophesised the end of the world to observe their behaviour
Field Experiments
an experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
Hawthorne Effect
refers to people’s tendency to behave differently when they become aware that they are being observed
Histogram
a graph that is used for continuous data, such as test scores, where there should be no space between bars, because data is continuous
Hypothesis
the prediction, using the aim but making the IV and DV measurable and testable
Correlation Hypothesis
hypothesis examining the relationship between two co-variables
Directional Hypothesis
hypothesis that is formed using previous research
Non-Directional Hypothesis
hypothesis where there has been no previous research in the area
Null Hypothesis
states that there will be no significant findings
Independent Groups
an experiment design whereby two groups and exposed to different experimental conditions
Individual Effects
where groups are not the same to begin with
Induction Model
where scientists develop testable hypotheses, which are tested, leading to new questions and a theory
Inferential Statistics
ways of analysing data using statistical tests that allow the researcher to make conclusions about whether a hypothesis was supported by the results
Informed Consent
participants must be told about anything that might reasonably affect their willingness to participate. Consent can be withdrawn at any time, including during and after the study. For children under the age of eighteen, consent must be given by parents. The only exception is in observational studies, as informed consent is not required in these studies provided they are being done in a public place
Internal Validity
a measure of whether results are just affected by changes in the independent variable in a cause-and-effect relationship or other variables too
Inter-Observer Reliability
the extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way
Internal Validity
in relation to the experiments, whether the results were due to the manipulation of the IV rather than other factors such as extraneous variables or demand characteristics
Interval Data
data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale
Investigator Effects
these result from the effects of a researcher’s behaviour and characteristics on an investigation
Interviews
a type of self-report that involves an experimenter asking participants questions and recording their responses
IV
Independent Variable
the variable you manipulate or look for a difference between
James Patrick (1960s)
in the 1960s, a 26-year-old schoolteacher at a Scottish school, under the alias of James Patrick, went undercover with the help of one of his pupils to study the behaviour of teenagers in Glaswegian gangs
Key Features of Science
means finding out about the world and gaining knowledge, aims to uncover reliable facts that can control the world, and scientific methods must be used
Kuhn (1962)
argued that science should have a paradigm, but this is reductionism
Prescience
the subject isn’t a science because it has lots of different competing approaches
Normal Science
an overall paradigm is established, to which there is a general agreement and appropriate research methods
Scientific Revolution
research evidence challenges the current paradigm and ends up changing the paradigm, so it returns to normal science, so according to Kuhn psychology, psychology was not a science until 2000
Lab Experiments
an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV an measures the DV, the most heavily controlled form of experimental research, because other extraneous variables can be controlled
Longitudinal Studies
studies that follow the same people over a period of time, meaning there are no participant variables to confound variables, therefore they have high internal validity
Mann-Whitney Test
difference, unrelated, ordinance
Matched Pairs
an experimental design where pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables, such as age or IQ. One is placed into an experimental group, and one into a control group
Mean
measure of the central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a set of data together and dividing by the total number of scores
Measures of Central Tendancy
a measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies, such as a mean, media or mode
Median
measure of central tendency calculated by arranging scores in a set of data from lowest to highest and finding the middle score
Meta-Analysis
averaging out the results of multiple studies
Methodological Issues
issues with method, a type of validity
Mode
measure of central tendency which is the most frequently occurring score in a set of data
Mundane Realism
similarity to the real world
Natural Experiments
studies where the experimenter cannot manipulate the independent variable, which leads to high ecological validity
Naturalistic Observation
an observation study conducted in the environment where the behaviour would normally occur
Negative Correlation
a relationship exists between two co-variables where as one increases, the other decreases
Nominal Data
frequency count data that consists of the number of participants falling into categories
Normal Distribution
an arrangement of data that is symmetrical and forms a bell shaped pattern where the mean, median and mode all fall in the centre of the highest peak
Observed Value
the value that you have obtained from conducting your statistical test
Observer Bias
occurs when the observers know the aims of the study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations
Observations
a research method that involves watching what people do
Open Questions
questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any answer they like and generate qualitative data
Operationalising Variable
this means clearly describing the variables in terms of how they will be manipulated or measured
Operationalism
the process of making an IV and DV measurable
Opportunity Sample
a sampling technique where participants are chosen because they are easily available
Order Effects
can occur in repeated measures design and refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome
Ordinal Level Data
data that is capable of being out of rank order
Overt Observation
also known as disclosed observation as the participants have given their permission for their behaviour to be observed
Paradigm
some key assumptions about something
Participant Observation
observation studies where the researcher actually joins the group or takes part in the situation they are observing
Pearson’s Test
correlation, related, interval
Peer Review
before going to publication, a research report is sent to other psychologists who are knowledgeable in the research topic and check for any problems
Pilot Study
a pre-run of the procedures of the study that is carried out before the main study used to check all materials and procedures work so that adjustments can be made if issues are found
Popper (1969)
argued theories should be falsifiable, and should not be abstract and impossible to prove them right through empirical research
Population Validity
a measure of whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people, normally the whole population
Positive Correlation
a relationship exists between two co-variables where as one increases, so does the other
Practice Effects
where participants do better on later conditions because they have had the experience of doing earlier conditions
Presumptive Consent
asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, and if yes, presume the sample would
Primary Data
information that the researcher has collected themselves for a specific purpose
Prior General Consent
before participants are recruited they are asked whether they would be prepared to take part in research where they might be deceived about the true purpose
Privacy
participants’ right to privacy must be respected, especially since invasions of privacy may affect wellbeing and raise confidentiality issues. This includes respecting social and cultural variability, respecting that participants may be unwilling to answer certain questions. Psychologists should observe only public behaviour in public spaces
Probability
how likely something is to happen, can be expressed as a decimal or percentage
Process of Science
requires control, to identify the IV and DV and establish cause and effect, objectivity, where expectations do not affect what they record, replicability, where experiments can be repeated and empiricism, where information is gained through direct observation
Protection from Harm
risk should be no more than participants would expect in everyday life. This includes both physical and psychological harm, such as stress or damage to self image. Participants should leave the study unchanged from how they entered it
P-Value
shows the probability chance that something was caused by chance
Qualitative Data
descriptive information that is expressed in words
Quantitative Data
information that can be measured and written down with numbers
Quasi Experiments
a type of natural experiment that contains a naturally occurring independent variable, whereby the independent variable is a difference between people that already exists
Questionnaires
a type of self-report consisting of questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents
Random Sampling
sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
Range
distance between the lowest and highest value in a set of scores and measure of dispersion which involves subtracting the lowest core from the highest score in a set of data
Related T Test
difference, related, interval
Reliability
the extent to which a study is consistent
Response Bias
a general term for a wide range of tendencies for participants to respond inaccurately or falsely to questions
Repeated Measure
an experiment design where the same participants take part in each condition of the experiment, meaning each condition of the experiment uses the same group of people
Representative Sample
a sample that closely matched the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics
Retrospective Consent
once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are not happy
Right to Withdraw
ethical guidelines state that participants in experiments have a right to withdraw at any time, and must be reminded that they have that right to withdraw. This was an ethical issue with Zimbardo’s prison experiment, as Zimbardo did not remind participants that they could withdraw and gave the impression that they were unallowed to
Rosenthal and Fode (1963)
undergraduates were told to train rats that were either ‘maze bright’ or ‘maze dull’ to run through a maze. The maze bright rats were more successful even though there were no difference between them, showing the results were affected by student bias
Sample
a group of people that are drawn from the target population to take part in a research investigation
Scattergram
used to plot correlations where each pair of values is plotted against each other to see if there is a relationship between them
Screw You Effect
when participants try to behave in the opposite way to what experimenters want
Secondary Data
information that someone else has collected such as the work of other psychologists or government statistics
Self-Corrective
meaning that scientific knowledge can be refined or abandoned later after further research
Semi-Structured Interview
interview that has some pre-determined questions, but the interview can develop others in response to answers given by the participant
Self Reports
a method of gathering data where participants provide information about themselves without interference from examiners
Significance
if the result of a statistical test is significant it is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance
Sign Test
a statistical test used to analyse the direction of differences of scores between the same or matched pairs of subjects under two experimental conditions; difference, related, nominal
Single-Blind Control
participants are not told the true purpose of the research
Skewed Distribution
an arrangement of data that is not symmetrical as data is clustered to one end of the distribution
Social Desirability Bias
participants’ overall behaviour is distorted as they modify this in order to be seen in a positive light
Spearman’s Rho Test
correlation, related, ordinance
Standard Deviation
a measure of the average spread of scores around the mean and the greater the standard deviation the more spread out the scores are
Standardised Instrunction
the instructions given to each participant are kept identical to hep prevent experimenter bias
Standardised Procedures
in every step of the research all the participants are treated in exactly the same way and so all have the same experience
Stratified Sample
a sampling technique where groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the target population
Statistical Test
used to decide whether any pattern found in a set of data is significant or it was caused by chance
Structured Interview
interview where the questions are fixed and the interviewer reads them out and records the responses
Structured Observation
an observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants’ behaviour
Subject Attrition
where participants don’t stay for the duration of the study
Systematic Sample
a sampling technique where every nth person in a list of the target population is selected
Target Population
not necessarily the general population
Temporal Validity
a measure of the validity of findings in relation to the progression of time
Teleological Ethics
the correctness of an action is determined by its intended consequences
Test-Retest Reliability
involves presenting the same participants with the same test or questionnaire on two separate occasions and seeing whether there is a positive correlation between the two
Thematic Analysis
a method for analysing qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within the data
Time Sampling
a way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of sixed time intervals
Type 1 Error
a false positive, where you wrongly accept that the alternative or experimental hypothesis is true
Type 2 Error
a false negative, where you wrongly accept that the null hypothesis is true
Unrelated T Test
difference, unrelated, interval
Unstructured Interviews
where the interviewer may have a list of topics or questions but has flexibility to lead the conversation further should participants give responses that lead to deeper or more detailed discussion
Unstructured Observation
where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in as much detail as possible
Utilitarian Ethics
a form of teleological ethics where moral correctness of the action is determined by its consequences for society as a whole, where the aim should be to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number of people, and psychological researchers usually take a utilitarian perspective but with some absolute prohibitions
Validity
the extent to which a study is truthful
Volunteer Sample
sampling technique where participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering an advertisement
Wilcoxen Test
difference, related, ordinance
WEIRD people
an acronym for Western, Education, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic people, often the only people experiments were done on in the past
