Psychopathology Flashcards
ABC Model
Ellis’s explanation for how irrational thoughts affect behaviour, where A = activating event, B = beliefs and C = consequences, the theory that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness, however it is their interpretation of these events that leads to their distress
Abnormality
a method of diagnosing mental illnesses
Absolutist Thinking
seeing things as either all good or all bad, either an absolute disaster or absolute success
Anatidaephobia
fear that somewhere, somehow, a duck is watching you
Anti-Cyclic Drugs
used in extreme cases of OCD or phobias where anti-depressants or SSRIs have not worked to lower anxiety, however they are rarely used as they are highly addictive, such as benzodiazepines
Anti-Depressants
rebalance brain chemistry, takes roughly 30 minutes to work and 2-3 weeks to take effect
Anti-Psychotic Drugs
usually used for schizophrenia or other psychoses, have proved useful in OCD, but are only given in OCD if other drugs do not work as they have severe side effects
Anti-Social Personality Behaviour
the only mental illness that cannot be diagnosed by failure to function adequately
Anxiolytics
anti-anxiety drugs
Apiphobia
fear of bees
Arachnophobia
fear of spiders
Aylward et al (1996)
studied twenty-four patients with adult-onset OCD and compared them with 21 matched controls, found no structural or functional differences in the caudate nucleus
Astrophobia
fear of thunder and lightening
Bananaphobia
phobia of bananas
Bandura and Rosenthal (1966)
had a confederate act as though he were in pain whenever a buzzer sounded; later on, those participants that had observed this showed an emotional reaction to the buzzer, demonstrating an acquired ‘fear’ response
Barlow and Durand (1995)
reported that 50% of people with a phobia for driving could remember a specific incident (car accident) that had triggered their fear, again supporting the theory that phobias are learned
Basal Ganglia
region of the brain involved in the coordination of movement that has been linked to OCD
Base Jumpers
may be wrongly identified as mentally ill as they take part in an extreme sport with a high mortality rate
BDI-II
Beck’s Depression Inventory
used to assess depression levels
Beck’s Negative Triad
Aaron Beck theorised that people get depressed because they see the world through negative schemas that dominate their thinking in situations similar to those in which the schemas were learned. The triad is made up of negative views about oneself, negative views about the world and negative views about the future, maintained by negative schemas and cognitive biases
Bellodi et al Study (2001)
this proved that genetic factors play a role in the disorder. Using evidence from twin studies and more family studies, they showed that close relatives are more likely to have the disorder than more distant relatives
Benzodiazepines
a highly addictive family of drugs that used to be common treatments for anxiety
Billet et al (1998)
found that MZ twins are twice as likely to have OCD concordance than DZ twins
Bullmore
suggested that depression may be due to inflammation in certain areas of the brain
Candidate Genes
genes which, through research, have been implicated in the development of OCD
Caspi et al (2003)
showed that depression may also have a degree of genetic vulnerability as certain variations in genes make you more likely than others to develop depression, but genes alone do not cause depression
Cognitive Bias
error in thinking caused by simplified information processing
Arbitrary Influence
linking every issue in the world to oneself
Catastrophising
where someone exaggerates a minor setback to be a major disaster
Magnification and Minimisation
where someone magnifies bad things in their life and minimises good things
Overgeneralisation
where one thing goes wrong so you assume everything will go wrong
Selective Abstraction
thinking only negative things
CBT
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
a commonly used therapy which involves challenging and replacing irrational thoughts
Compulsion
an irresistible urge to behave in a certain way
COMT gene
gene which has a variation which results in higher levels of dopamine and this variation is more common in patients with OCD
Chionophobia
phobia of snow
Chrysophobia
fear of oranges
CR
Conditioned Response
the fear response that has been conditioned into someone
CS
Conditioned Stimulus
something that someone has been conditioned to fear
Covert Desensatisation
imagining scenarios in systematic desensatisation
Coulrophobia
fear of clowns
Counter Conditioning
learning a new response to the phobic object or situation, replacing fear with relaxation
Cromer (2007)
found that over half the OCD patients in the sample had a traumatic event in the past, and that OCD was more severe in those with more than one trauma. This means it may be more productive to focus on environmental causes as it seems that not all OCD is entirely genetic in origin
Cynophobia
fear of dogs
Davey (1992)
found that individuals with a fear of spiders had very different personal characteristics to those that were not; this suggests that fear of spiders was not learnt, but innate and related to certain personality traits
Delusion
phobia without cognitive characteristics
Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
works in the opposite way to the others by looking for signs of wellbeing In theory, if you have all six, you are mentally well, but if you are missing one you may have a mental illness.
Positive Attitude Toward Self
part of counselling involves building this up
Self-Actualisation
when you reach your true potential
Autonomy
the ability to make your own decisions
Resisting Stress
coping with daily life
Accurate Perception of Reality
Environmental Mastery
ability to adapt
Deviation from Social Norms
society has unwritten rules and when people violate these unwritten rules, it could indicate a mental illness, for example, an adult avoiding stepping on cracks in the pavement may indicate a mental illness
Failure to Function Adequately
Rosenham and Selignang (1969) suggested a criteria for functioning adequately. A person may have one or two and not be ill, but a combination could indicate that a person’s behaviour is abnormal
Irrationality
where a person displays illogical or unreasonable behaviour that affects ability to function, may suggest phobias or major psychotic disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or psychotic breakdowns, but Darwin was considered irrational in his time, but evolution is considered rational now; it changes like social norms
Maladaptive Behaviour
partaking in an activity that does more harm than good, may suggest addictions, as all addictions are maladaptive, but behaviours such as homelessness are maladaptive however this does not mean that you have a mental illness
Observed Discomfort
where observing a person makes you feel uncomfortable, may suggest alcoholism
Personal Distress
where a person shows significant distress to the point it is affecting your ability to function, may suggest depression or severe anxiety, but under some circumstances, personal distress is normal, such as if someone died; it would be more abnormal not to show distress
Unconventiality
acting differently to the norm, may suggest major psychosis, but many mental disorders, such as depression, are seldom associated with unconventional behaviours, because they are relatively uncommon; in addition, some behaviours, such as genius, would be considered abnormal, but not problematic
Unpredictability
where a person displays unpredictable behaviour that is affecting their ability to function, may suggest borderline personality disorder or schizophrenia, but someone’s behaviour may only be unexpected because you are unaware of the reasons behind it
Statistical Infrequencies
the idea that behaviours that are statistically infrequent are seen as abnormal based on the notion of a normal distribution curve for all behaviour and those that appear in the extremes, mainly used when testing IQ
Agoraphobia
an extreme anxiety disorder characterized by anxiety in situations where the person feels unsafe and as though they have no easy way to escape
Alphabutyrophobia
fear of peanut butter
Amaxophobia
fear of cars
Average IQ
100
Avoidance
the act of staying away from something, such as the phobia object or situation
Cultural Relativism
where criterion is likely to result in different diagnoses when applied to people from different cultures
Depression
a mood disorder characterised by feelings of despondency and hopeless
Depressive Realism
phenomenon where people with depression are better at predicting disasters
DiNardo (1988)
theorised that some phobias can be explained by evolution, eg heights, fire
Dopamine
higher levels of this neurotransmitter have been associated with the compulsions seen in OCD patients
DSM-V
Diagnosis and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
a publication by the American Psychiatric Association for the classification of mental disorders using a common language and standard criteria
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder
childhood temper tantrums
Dizygotic Twins
twins that are not from the same egg, share 50% DNA
DBT
Dialectical Behaviour Therapy
a form of CBT generally used for mood disorders and suicidal idealisation
Diathesis-Stress Model
suggests that people gain a vulnerability towards a mental abnormality such as OCD through their genes but an environmental trigger is also required
Dopamine
– higher levels of this neurotransmitter have been associated with the compulsions seen in OCD patients, plays a role in happiness, appetite and sleep
Drug Treatments
behavioural treatments are more effective than drug treatments as they have no side effects and, unlike drug treatments such as benzodiazepines, they are not addictive. However, behavioural treatments take more time and more commitment from patients
DTR
Dysfunctional Thought Records
records mood changes on a scale of 1-100 to rate emotions such as anger and anxiety
Dysthymia
long-term mild depression
Eisoptrophobia
fear of mirrors
Embling’s Depression Study
– Embling tested the effectiveness of CBT in treating depression by giving one group just anti-depressants and one group anti-depressants and CBT. The group who had CBT later scored lower on the BDI-II and were better able to express themselves
Empirical Dispute
REBT technique where the therapists seeks evidence for a person’s thoughts
Endogenous Depression
depression that is unrelated to a person’s life circumstances, often due to chemical imbalances in the brain
Environmental Trigger
a stressful event such as a bereavement that triggers a mental abnormality a person was always genetically predisposed to have
Ethnocentrism
refers to a particular form of cultural bias, a belief in superiority of ones own cultural group. In psychological research, this may be communicated through a view that any behaviours which do not conform to the (usually Western) model are somehow deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped. For example, some women in the middle East do not get autonomy as they have their husbands chosen for them so they can never be classed as mentally normal
Evolutionary Theory
the theory that humans have a genetic tendency to be phobic of things that can cause harm, such as the dark, as this mechanism ensures caution and increases survival
Factitious Disorder
a mental disorder in which a person, without a malingering motive, acts as if they have an illness by deliberately producing, feigning, or exaggerating symptoms, purely to attain (for themselves or for another) a patient’s role
Munchausen Syndrome
factitious disorder imposed on self
Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy
factitious disorder imposed on others
Fear Heirarchy
has something that causes low anxiety at the bottom and a person’s worst nightmare at the top
Flooding
also known as implosion, this is where the fear is taken to the worst possible extreme, either imagined or real, until the client can no longer feel fear due to exhaustion. However, there are ethical considerations due to p9otenteial psychological harm and it is not suitable for all patients as it may cause heart attacks
fMRI Scans
scans that produce images related to the levels of oxygen in the blood and therefore to metabolic function, and hence, localised brain activity. These scanners produce images related to the water molecule’s hydrogen nuclei and therefore to anatomical structure. These are expensive and are mainly used for experimental research
Genius
a person with IQ above 130
Gynophobia
fear of women
Hysteria
a word formed from the word ‘hys’ meaning uterus. As late as the 1950s, women would be interned at mental institutions with this diagnosis. Scientists believed that hysteria a mental illness caused by a woman’s uterus causing them to have small brains that could not cope with emotions. It was believed that the only reason a woman would get pregnant outside of marriage was if they were mentally ill with ‘hysteria’ so they would be interned at mental institutions for up to 30 years and would be subjected to horrific ‘treatments’
Hindsight Bias
the way that social norms change over time
Hu (2006)
compared serotonin activity in 169 OCD patients and 253 non-OCD patinets and found that serotonin levels were lower in the OCD patients which supports the idea that low levels of serotonin are associated with OCD
Humanist Psychologist
generally excluded from psychology as they believe doing experiments on people is always wrong because everyone is different and responds differently. They are not scientific so are generally avoided by mainstream psychologist. They developed the idea of counselling
ICD
International Classification of Diseases
a publication by the World Health Organisation for the classification of diseases, health management for clinical purposes using a common language and standard criteria
In Vivo Desensatisation
actual scenarios
Influenza
an illness that can break down the immune system and has been linked to OCD
Intellectual Disability
characterised by statistically low IQ and failure to function adequately
Ivan Pavlov
a neurologists who investigated classical conditioned by unethically experimenting on animals and children by making sure he was the only one to feed the participants, meaning they began associating him with food and started salivating when they saw him
Julien’s OCD Study (2007)
reported that studies of OCD show that although symptoms to not fully disappear, 50-80% of patients with OCD improve after taking medication, allowing them to live a normal life, supporting the use of drug treatment for OCD
Kinemortophobia
fear of zombies
Koran et al (2007)
found that although drug treatments were most commonly used, psychotherapies like CBT should be used because without it, relapse occurs within a few weeks of stopping the drugs
Koumpounophobia
fear of buttons
Lachanophobia
fear of vegetables
Learning Disability
where a person has an IQ below 70
Lincon et al Study (1997)
Lincon used a questionnaire on stroke victims who developed clinical depression. 19 patients were given CBT for 4 months. They found that patients reported a reduction in symptoms, therefore supporting the idea that CBT reduces symptoms of depression
Little Albert Experiment (1920)
an experiment by Watson and Raynor on a baby where he was conditioned to fear a white rat by hitting an iron bar over his head each time he tried to touch a white rabbit, but Albert generalised his fear to anything white and furry, showing that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning
Little Peter Experiment (1924)
Mary Cover Jones used systematic desensitisation to remove Little Peter’s fear of rabbits. He presented the rabbit at decreasing distances, moving it each time Peter’s anxiety levels subsided. Peter was rewarded with food to develop a positive association with the rabbit. This supports systematic desensitisation evidencing that reassociation with a phobic object that can be learnt
Logical Dispute
REBT technique where the therapies dispute the logic of a person’s thoughts
Lutraphobia
fear of otters
Lyme’s Disease
an illness that can break down the immune system and has been linked to OCD
Major Depression
long-term severe depression
Major Depressive Disorder
severe but often short-term depression
Max et al (1995)
conducted a case study of a young boy who developed OCD and impulsive aggression after a traumatic brain injury to the frontal and temporal lobe, suggesting they are implicated in the development of OCD
MRI Scans
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scans
a study method that involves scanning the brain using powerful magnets and radio waves
OCD
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
anxiety disorder characterised by persistent, recurrent, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive ritualistic behaviours
Ombrophobia
fear of rain
Ornithophobia
fear of birds
Ost et al (1991)
Marie Jahoda
the humanist psychologist who came up with the idea of Deviation From Normal Mental Health
Mckeon and Murray Study
genes which, through research, have been implicated in the development of OCD
mCPP
Meta-Chlorophenylpiperazine
a drug that reduces serotonin
Mental Illness
a mental condition whereby people start changing their lives, are unable to fulfil their normal routines, such as going to work, to the point that it is significantly interfering with their lives
Monozygotic Twins
twins from the same egg, share 100% of the same DNA
Mycophobia
fear of mushrooms
Negative Self-Schemas
negative information we hold about ourselves based on negative past experiences that can lead to cognitive bias
Ineptless Schema
feeling rubbish at everything
Negative Self Evaluation Schema
focusing on negative information about oneself
Self-Blame Schema
blaming oneself for everything
Negative Triad
three types of negative thinking (self, the world and the future) that Beck suggested occur automatically in people who are depressed
NR
Neutral Response
little to no response
NS
Neutral Stimulus
a stimulus that produces little to no response
New Age Travellers
may be wrongly identified as mentally ill as they do not live in permanent accommodations and may not work
NEWSTAD
a study that involved reviewing OCD cases and found 68% of identical twins both have OCD, 31% of non-identical twins both have OCD, so high congruence in identical twins show OCD is caused by genetic make-up rather than the environment
Nomophobia
fear of having no phone signal
Norepinephrine
plays a role in regulating cognition, motivation, alertness and regulating heart rate and blood pressure during stressful times
Obsession
an idea or thought that continually preoccupies or intrudes on a person’s mind
OCD
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
anxiety disorder characterised by persistent, recurrent, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive ritualistic behaviours
Cleaning OCD
more common in males than females, involves an obsession with cleaning and/or germs and compulsive cleaning
Just Right OCD
involves an obsession with things being accurate or complete, and a compulsion with making them accurate or complete
Magical Thinking OCD
involves an obsession with assigning magical powers to unalive objects, such as ‘angelic numbers’ or astronomy
Moral Scrupulosity
involves an obsession with being a good person and compulsive mental checking that the person is a good person
Pure O
OCD that invovles mental compulsions instead of physical ones, for example thinking the same word over and over again
Real Event OCD
involves obsessive thoughts about real events that have already happened
Relationship OCD
involves an obsession with relationships and a compulsion with checking that that the relationship is good, that you have made the right decisions in the relationship or that you have done enough in the relationship
Religion OCD
involves an obsession with religion and compulsions such as repeated praying to alleviate worries about going to Hell
Sexual Orientation OCD
involves an obsession with sexual orientation and a compulsion with double checking your sexual orientation, for example, checking you’re not attracted to various groups
OLIG-2 Gene
activates the expression of myelin-associated genes, one of the candidate genes for OCD
Ombrophobia
fear of rain
Omphalophobia
fear of belly buttons
Orphidiophobia
fear of snakes
Orbifrontal Cortex
a region of the brain that converts sensory information into thoughts and actions where higher activity has been found in OCD patients
Overgeneralisation
cognitive error where you make a sweeping conclusion from a single incident
Panic Attacks
when the hypothalmus activates the sympathetic branch of the nervous system which activates the adrenal gland on the kidneys which shuts down peripherals such as digestion, which causes someone to have a dry mouth, feel sick or be sick. The body’s muscles are ignited, causing fight or flight. Breathing rate, heart rate and blood pressure all raise, causing people to physically shake or pass out from breathing too much
Papaphobia
fear of the Pope
Paraphilia
unusual sexual behaviours characterised by deviation from social norms and causing harm and distress
Exhibitionism
a form of paraphilia that involves flashing people
Frotterism
a form of paraphilia that involves rubbing up against people in public
Paedophilia
a form of paraphilia that involves attraction to children
Consensual Sadomachism
used to be classed as a form of paraphilia, involves sexual acts that involve either inflicting or receiving pain
Homosexuality
used to be classed as a form of paraphilia, as included in the DSM until the 1970s
Transvestitism
used to be classed as a form of paraphilia, involves wearing clothes of the opposite gender for relaxation, enjoyment, expression etc.
Pathologise
to make something into an illness
Pauls et al
proved that there is a much higher percentage of OCD sufferers in relatives of patients with OCD than in the control group without OCD
Parasympathetic Branch
overrides the sympathetic branch to calm down a person’s physiology
Persistent Depressive Disorder
long-term or recurring depression
PET Scans
Positron Emission Tomography Scans
a functional imaging technique that uses radioactive substances known as radiotracers to visualize and measure changes in metabolic processes, and in other physiological activities including blood flow, regional chemical composition, and absorption
Phobia
anxiety disorders characterised by extreme irrational phobias
Complex Phobia
more complicated phobias that are not of a specific thing
Simple Phobia
phobia of a specific thing
Pogonophobia
fear of beards
Polygenic
where development of a mental abnormality is not determined by a single gene
Portaphobia
fear of portaloos
Post-Natal/Post-Partum Depression
a form of reactive depression where the activating event is having a baby, more common in people who really wanted a baby, where the brain chemistry is altered, causing lower levels of serotonin
Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
disruption to mood prior to and/or during menstruation
Psychopathology
the study of mental illnesses
Rapaport and Wise
proposed that the hypersensitivity of the basal ganglia gives rise to the repetitive motor behaviours seen in OCD, for example, repetitive washing, cleaning or checking
Reactive Depression
depression triggered by some sort of external event
REBT
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
a type of CBT based on Ellis’s ABC theory
Reciprical Inhibition
describes the relaxation of muscles on one side of a joint to accommodate contraction on the other side
Rectaphobia
fear of bottoms
Rehabilitation
following a psychotic breakdown, many people struggle to follow social norms such as getting up, dressed and washing. These people often end up in rehabilitation centres where they re-learn to look after themselves.
Saisto et al Experiment (2001)
Saisto studied expectant mothers and found that those who did not adjust personal goals to match the specific demands of the transition to motherhood and indulged in negative thinking had increased depression, supporting the idea that negative thoughts lead to depression
Selective Attention
focusing on one piece of information while ignoring other information viewed as irrelevant
Selective Judgement
where someone doing an assessment is subjective, as it may be the case that different assessors would disagree about whether a particular criteria had been met
Serotonin
neurotransmitter which regulates mood, where lower levels have been associated with OCD, plays a role in happiness, appetite and sleep
SERT Gene
gene which affects the transport of serotonin, causing lower levels of serotonin which is associated with OCD
Sertraline
initially developed as an anti-depressant, but is widely prescribed for OCD because it helps to boost mood and reduce the tendency to worry
Sidonglobophobia
fear of cotton wool
Soomro et al (2008)
reviewed 17 studies of the use of SSRIs on OCD patients, found them to be more effective than placebos
Spiritualists
take part in religious rituals believing they are communicating with the dead, so may be wrongly identified as mentally ill
SSRIs
antidepressant drug used to treat OCD which work by preventing the re-absorption and breakdown of serotonin
Statistical Frequency in IQ
70-130
Stewart et al (2007)
study involved performing gene mapping on OCD patients and family members. They found that a variant of the OLIG-2 commonly occurred, supporting the idea that there are specific genes that lead to vulnerability to OCD
Systematic Desensatisation
based on the idea of classical conditioning. The person is taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing which leads to reciprocal inhibition, activating the parasympathetic branch which calms the person’s physiology down. They develop a fear hierarchy with something that causes mild anxiety at the bottom and the worst fear possible at the top
Thalassophobia
fear of deep water
Tony and Glazioli Study (2000)
assessing 65 women for vulnerability before and after birth found that women with high vulnerability often had post-natal depression cognitions develop before pregnancy, showing how the negative triad increases likelihood of depression
Tricyclic Antidepressants
these are used if SSRIs do not work, before antipsychotic drugs are considered. They work by preventing the reabsorption of serotonin and norepinephrine. High levels of these have been proven to cause anxiety and low levels, depression
Triskaidekaphobia
fear of the number 13
Twin Studies
look at congruence rates of monozygotic and dizygotic twins, as you should have a higher congruence rate in monozygotic than dizygotic twins if a condition is genetic. There is never a 100% congruence rate in all mental abnormalities, with a 45-50% concordance rate in monozygotic twins and a 15-20% concordance rate in dizygotic twins
Two Process Model
how someone acquires a phobia, involves two processes
Classical Conditioning
the acquisition or onset of a phobia, where an unconditioned stimulus previously paired with an unconditioned response of fear is paired with a neutral stimulus to produce the unconditioned response of fear, making the neutral stimulus a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response
Operant Conditioning
the maintenance of a phobia
Unconditioned Response
an response of fear that is natural, for example, one to loud noises or the dark
Unconditioned Stimulus
something that it is natural to fear, for example, loud noises or the dark
Unipolar Depression
a form of depression occurring without mania
Valium
anti-anxiety medication, increases levels of GABA in the brain, helping to calm people down
Vestiphobia
fear of clothing
Wolpe’s Experiment (1960)
Joseph Wolpe used flooding to cure a girl’s phobia of cars by driving the girl around until she was exhausted and now associated cars with exhaustion rather than fear
Xanthophobia
fear of yellow
Zemmiphobia
fear of giant mole rats
Zohar et al (1987)
Zohar gave mCPP to 12 OCD patients and a control group of 21 non-OCD patients. They found that the symptoms of OCD patients were significantly enhanced. This supports the idea that sufferers’ condition is related to abnormal serotonin levels
