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Psychology A-Level > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

ABC Model

A

Ellis’s explanation for how irrational thoughts affect behaviour, where A = activating event, B = beliefs and C = consequences, the theory that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness, however it is their interpretation of these events that leads to their distress

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2
Q

Abnormality

A

a method of diagnosing mental illnesses

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3
Q

Absolutist Thinking

A

seeing things as either all good or all bad, either an absolute disaster or absolute success

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4
Q

Anatidaephobia

A

fear that somewhere, somehow, a duck is watching you

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5
Q

Anti-Cyclic Drugs

A

used in extreme cases of OCD or phobias where anti-depressants or SSRIs have not worked to lower anxiety, however they are rarely used as they are highly addictive, such as benzodiazepines

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6
Q

Anti-Depressants

A

rebalance brain chemistry, takes roughly 30 minutes to work and 2-3 weeks to take effect

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7
Q

Anti-Psychotic Drugs

A

usually used for schizophrenia or other psychoses, have proved useful in OCD, but are only given in OCD if other drugs do not work as they have severe side effects

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8
Q

Anti-Social Personality Behaviour

A

the only mental illness that cannot be diagnosed by failure to function adequately

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9
Q

Apiphobia

A

fear of bees

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10
Q

Arachnophobia

A

fear of spiders

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11
Q

Astrophobia

A

fear of thunder and lightening

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12
Q

Bananaphobia

A

phobia of bananas

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13
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

region of the brain involved in the coordination of movement that has been linked to OCD

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14
Q

Base Jumpers

A

may be wrongly identified as mentally ill as they take part in an extreme sport with a high mortality rate

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15
Q

BDI-II

A

Beck’s Depression Inventory

used to assess depression levels

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16
Q

Beck’s Negative Triad

A

Aaron Beck theorised that people get depressed because they see the world through negative schemas that dominate their thinking in situations similar to those in which the schemas were learned. The triad is made up of negative views about oneself, negative views about the world and negative views about the future, maintained by negative schemas and cognitive biases

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17
Q

Bellodi et al Study (2001)

A

this proved that genetic factors play a role in the disorder. Using evidence from twin studies and more family studies, they showed that close relatives are more likely to have the disorder than more distant relatives

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18
Q

Benzodiazepines

A

a highly addictive family of drugs that used to be common treatments for anxiety

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19
Q

Candidate Genes

A

genes which, through research, have been implicated in the development of OCD

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20
Q

Cognitive Bias

A

error in thinking caused by simplified information processing

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21
Q

Arbitrary Influence

A

linking every issue in the world to oneself

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22
Q

Catastrophising

A

where someone exaggerates a minor setback to be a major disaster

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23
Q

Magnification and Minimisation

A

where someone magnifies bad things in their life and minimises good things

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24
Q

Overgeneralisation

A

where one thing goes wrong so you assume everything will go wrong

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25
Q

Selective Abstraction

A

thinking only negative things

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26
Q

CBT

A

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy

a commonly used therapy which involves challenging and replacing irrational thoughts

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27
Q

Compulsion

A

an irresistible urge to behave in a certain way

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28
Q

COMT gene

A

gene which has a variation which results in higher levels of dopamine and this variation is more common in patients with OCD

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29
Q

Chionophobia

A

phobia of snow

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30
Q

Chrysophobia

A

fear of oranges

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31
Q

CR

A

Conditioned Response

the fear response that has been conditioned into someone

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32
Q

CS

A

Conditioned Stimulus

something that someone has been conditioned to fear

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33
Q

Covert Desensatisation

A

imagining scenarios in systematic desensatisation

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34
Q

Coulrophobia

A

fear of clowns

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35
Q

Counter Conditioning

A

learning a new response to the phobic object or situation, replacing fear with relaxation

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36
Q

Cromer (2007)

A

found that over half the OCD patients in the sample had a traumatic event in the past, and that OCD was more severe in those with more than one trauma. This means it may be more productive to focus on environmental causes as it seems that not all OCD is entirely genetic in origin

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37
Q

Cynophobia

A

fear of dogs

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38
Q

Delusion

A

phobia without cognitive characteristics

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39
Q

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

A

works in the opposite way to the others by looking for signs of wellbeing In theory, if you have all six, you are mentally well, but if you are missing one you may have a mental illness.

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40
Q

Positive Attitude Toward Self

A

part of counselling involves building this up

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41
Q

Self-Actualisation

A

when you reach your true potential

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42
Q

Autonomy

A

the ability to make your own decisions

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43
Q

Resisting Stress

A

coping with daily life

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44
Q

Accurate Perception of Reality

A
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45
Q

Environmental Mastery

A

ability to adapt

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46
Q

Deviation from Social Norms

A

society has unwritten rules and when people violate these unwritten rules, it could indicate a mental illness, for example, an adult avoiding stepping on cracks in the pavement may indicate a mental illness

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47
Q

Failure to Function Adequately

A

Rosenham and Selignang (1969) suggested a criteria for functioning adequately. A person may have one or two and not be ill, but a combination could indicate that a person’s behaviour is abnormal

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48
Q

Irrationality

A

where a person displays illogical or unreasonable behaviour that affects ability to function, may suggest phobias or major psychotic disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or psychotic breakdowns, but Darwin was considered irrational in his time, but evolution is considered rational now; it changes like social norms

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49
Q

Maladaptive Behaviour

A

partaking in an activity that does more harm than good, may suggest addictions, as all addictions are maladaptive, but behaviours such as homelessness are maladaptive however this does not mean that you have a mental illness

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50
Q

Observed Discomfort

A

where observing a person makes you feel uncomfortable, may suggest alcoholism

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51
Q

Personal Distress

A

where a person shows significant distress to the point it is affecting your ability to function, may suggest depression or severe anxiety, but under some circumstances, personal distress is normal, such as if someone died; it would be more abnormal not to show distress

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52
Q

Unconventiality

A

acting differently to the norm, may suggest major psychosis, but many mental disorders, such as depression, are seldom associated with unconventional behaviours, because they are relatively uncommon; in addition, some behaviours, such as genius, would be considered abnormal, but not problematic

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53
Q

Unpredictability

A

where a person displays unpredictable behaviour that is affecting their ability to function, may suggest borderline personality disorder or schizophrenia, but someone’s behaviour may only be unexpected because you are unaware of the reasons behind it

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54
Q

Statistical Infrequencies

A

the idea that behaviours that are statistically infrequent are seen as abnormal based on the notion of a normal distribution curve for all behaviour and those that appear in the extremes, mainly used when testing IQ

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55
Q

Agoraphobia

A

an extreme anxiety disorder characterized by anxiety in situations where the person feels unsafe and as though they have no easy way to escape

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56
Q

Alphabutyrophobia

A

fear of peanut butter

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57
Q

Amaxophobia

A

fear of cars

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58
Q

Average IQ

A

100

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59
Q

Avoidance

A

the act of staying away from something, such as the phobia object or situation

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60
Q

Cultural Relativism

A

where criterion is likely to result in different diagnoses when applied to people from different cultures

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61
Q

Depression

A

a mood disorder characterised by feelings of despondency and hopeless

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62
Q

Dopamine

A

higher levels of this neurotransmitter have been associated with the compulsions seen in OCD patients

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63
Q

DSM-V

A

Diagnosis and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

a publication by the American Psychiatric Association for the classification of mental disorders using a common language and standard criteria

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64
Q

Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder

A

childhood temper tantrums

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65
Q

Dizygotic Twins

A

twins that are not from the same egg, share 50% DNA

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66
Q

DBT

A

Dialectical Behaviour Therapy

a form of CBT generally used for mood disorders and suicidal idealisation

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67
Q

Diathesis-Stress Model

A

suggests that people gain a vulnerability towards a mental abnormality such as OCD through their genes but an environmental trigger is also required

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68
Q

Dopamine

A

– higher levels of this neurotransmitter have been associated with the compulsions seen in OCD patients, plays a role in happiness, appetite and sleep

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69
Q

Drug Treatments

A

behavioural treatments are more effective than drug treatments as they have no side effects and, unlike drug treatments such as benzodiazepines, they are not addictive. However, behavioural treatments take more time and more commitment from patients

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70
Q

DTR

A

Dysfunctional Thought Records

records mood changes on a scale of 1-100 to rate emotions such as anger and anxiety

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71
Q

Dysthymia

A

long-term mild depression

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72
Q

Eisoptrophobia

A

fear of mirrors

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73
Q

Embling’s Depression Study

A

– Embling tested the effectiveness of CBT in treating depression by giving one group just anti-depressants and one group anti-depressants and CBT. The group who had CBT later scored lower on the BDI-II and were better able to express themselves

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74
Q

Empirical Dispute

A

REBT technique where the therapists seeks evidence for a person’s thoughts

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75
Q

Endogenous Depression

A

depression that is unrelated to a person’s life circumstances, often due to chemical imbalances in the brain

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76
Q

Environmental Trigger

A

a stressful event such as a bereavement that triggers a mental abnormality a person was always genetically predisposed to have

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77
Q

Ethnocentrism

A

refers to a particular form of cultural bias, a belief in superiority of ones own cultural group. In psychological research, this may be communicated through a view that any behaviours which do not conform to the (usually Western) model are somehow deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped. For example, some women in the middle East do not get autonomy as they have their husbands chosen for them so they can never be classed as mentally normal

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78
Q

Evolutionary Theory

A

the theory that humans have a genetic tendency to be phobic of things that can cause harm, such as the dark, as this mechanism ensures caution and increases survival

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79
Q

Factitious Disorder

A

a mental disorder in which a person, without a malingering motive, acts as if they have an illness by deliberately producing, feigning, or exaggerating symptoms, purely to attain (for themselves or for another) a patient’s role

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80
Q

Munchausen Syndrome

A

factitious disorder imposed on self

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81
Q

Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy

A

factitious disorder imposed on others

82
Q

Fear Heirarchy

A

has something that causes low anxiety at the bottom and a person’s worst nightmare at the top

83
Q

Flooding

A

also known as implosion, this is where the fear is taken to the worst possible extreme, either imagined or real, until the client can no longer feel fear due to exhaustion. However, there are ethical considerations due to p9otenteial psychological harm and it is not suitable for all patients as it may cause heart attacks

84
Q

fMRI Scans

A

scans that produce images related to the levels of oxygen in the blood and therefore to metabolic function, and hence, localised brain activity. These scanners produce images related to the water molecule’s hydrogen nuclei and therefore to anatomical structure. These are expensive and are mainly used for experimental research

85
Q

Genius

A

a person with IQ above 130

86
Q

Gynophobia

A

fear of women

87
Q

Hysteria

A

a word formed from the word ‘hys’ meaning uterus. As late as the 1950s, women would be interned at mental institutions with this diagnosis. Scientists believed that hysteria a mental illness caused by a woman’s uterus causing them to have small brains that could not cope with emotions. It was believed that the only reason a woman would get pregnant outside of marriage was if they were mentally ill with ‘hysteria’ so they would be interned at mental institutions for up to 30 years and would be subjected to horrific ‘treatments’

88
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

the way that social norms change over time

89
Q

Hu (2006)

A

compared serotonin activity in 169 OCD patients and 253 non-OCD patinets and found that serotonin levels were lower in the OCD patients which supports the idea that low levels of serotonin are associated with OCD

90
Q

Humanist Psychologist

A

generally excluded from psychology as they believe doing experiments on people is always wrong because everyone is different and responds differently. They are not scientific so are generally avoided by mainstream psychologist. They developed the idea of counselling

91
Q

ICD

A

International Classification of Diseases

a publication by the World Health Organisation for the classification of diseases, health management for clinical purposes using a common language and standard criteria

92
Q

In Vivo Desensatisation

A

actual scenarios

93
Q

Influenza

A

an illness that can break down the immune system and has been linked to OCD

94
Q

Intellectual Disability

A

characterised by statistically low IQ and failure to function adequately

95
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

a neurologists who investigated classical conditioned by unethically experimenting on animals and children by making sure he was the only one to feed the participants, meaning they began associating him with food and started salivating when they saw him

96
Q

Julien’s OCD Study (2007)

A

reported that studies of OCD show that although symptoms to not fully disappear, 50-80% of patients with OCD improve after taking medication, allowing them to live a normal life, supporting the use of drug treatment for OCD

97
Q

Kinemortophobia

A

fear of zombies

98
Q

Koumpounophobia

A

fear of buttons

99
Q

Lachanophobia

A

fear of vegetables

100
Q

Learning Disability

A

where a person has an IQ below 70

101
Q

Lincon et al Study (1997)

A

Lincon used a questionnaire on stroke victims who developed clinical depression. 19 patients were given CBT for 4 months. They found that patients reported a reduction in symptoms, therefore supporting the idea that CBT reduces symptoms of depression

102
Q

Little Albert Experiment (1920)

A

an experiment by Watson and Raynor on a baby where he was conditioned to fear a white rat by hitting an iron bar over his head each time he tried to touch a white rabbit, but Albert generalised his fear to anything white and furry, showing that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning

103
Q

Little Peter Experiment (1924)

A

Mary Cover Jones used systematic desensitisation to remove Little Peter’s fear of rabbits. He presented the rabbit at decreasing distances, moving it each time Peter’s anxiety levels subsided. Peter was rewarded with food to develop a positive association with the rabbit. This supports systematic desensitisation evidencing that reassociation with a phobic object that can be learnt

104
Q

Logical Dispute

A

REBT technique where the therapies dispute the logic of a person’s thoughts

105
Q

Lutraphobia

A

fear of otters

106
Q

Lyme’s Disease

A

an illness that can break down the immune system and has been linked to OCD

107
Q

Major Depression

A

long-term severe depression

108
Q

Major Depressive Disorder

A

severe but often short-term depression

109
Q

MRI Scans

A

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scans

a study method that involves scanning the brain using powerful magnets and radio waves

110
Q

OCD

A

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

anxiety disorder characterised by persistent, recurrent, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive ritualistic behaviours

111
Q

Ombrophobia

A

fear of rain

112
Q

Ornithophobia

A

fear of birds

113
Q

Marie Jahoda

A

the humanist psychologist who came up with the idea of Deviation From Normal Mental Health

114
Q

Mckeon and Murray Study

A

genes which, through research, have been implicated in the development of OCD

115
Q

mCPP

A

Meta-Chlorophenylpiperazine

a drug that reduces serotonin

116
Q

Mental Illness

A

a mental condition whereby people start changing their lives, are unable to fulfil their normal routines, such as going to work, to the point that it is significantly interfering with their lives

117
Q

Monozygotic Twins

A

twins from the same egg, share 100% of the same DNA

118
Q

Mycophobia

A

fear of mushrooms

119
Q

Negative Self-Schemas

A

negative information we hold about ourselves based on negative past experiences that can lead to cognitive bias

120
Q

Ineptless Schema

A

feeling rubbish at everything

121
Q

Negative Self Evaluation Schema

A

focusing on negative information about oneself

122
Q

Self-Blame Schema

A

blaming oneself for everything

123
Q

Negative Triad

A

three types of negative thinking (self, the world and the future) that Beck suggested occur automatically in people who are depressed

124
Q

NR

A

Neutral Response

little to no response

125
Q

NS

A

Neutral Stimulus

a stimulus that produces little to no response

126
Q

New Age Travellers

A

may be wrongly identified as mentally ill as they do not live in permanent accommodations and may not work

127
Q

NEWSTAD

A

a study that involved reviewing OCD cases and found 68% of identical twins both have OCD, 31% of non-identical twins both have OCD, so high congruence in identical twins show OCD is caused by genetic make-up rather than the environment

128
Q

Nomophobia

A

fear of having no phone signal

129
Q

Norepinephrine

A

plays a role in regulating cognition, motivation, alertness and regulating heart rate and blood pressure during stressful times

130
Q

Obsession

A

an idea or thought that continually preoccupies or intrudes on a person’s mind

131
Q

OCD

A

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

anxiety disorder characterised by persistent, recurrent, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive ritualistic behaviours

132
Q

Cleaning OCD

A

more common in males than females, involves an obsession with cleaning and/or germs and compulsive cleaning

133
Q

Just Right OCD

A

involves an obsession with things being accurate or complete, and a compulsion with making them accurate or complete

134
Q

Magical Thinking OCD

A

involves an obsession with assigning magical powers to unalive objects, such as ‘angelic numbers’ or astronomy

135
Q

Moral Scrupulosity

A

involves an obsession with being a good person and compulsive mental checking that the person is a good person

136
Q

Pure O

A

OCD that invovles mental compulsions instead of physical ones, for example thinking the same word over and over again

137
Q

Real Event OCD

A

involves obsessive thoughts about real events that have already happened

138
Q

Relationship OCD

A

involves an obsession with relationships and a compulsion with checking that that the relationship is good, that you have made the right decisions in the relationship or that you have done enough in the relationship

139
Q

Religion OCD

A

involves an obsession with religion and compulsions such as repeated praying to alleviate worries about going to Hell

140
Q

Sexual Orientation OCD

A

involves an obsession with sexual orientation and a compulsion with double checking your sexual orientation, for example, checking you’re not attracted to various groups

141
Q

OLIG-2 Gene

A

activates the expression of myelin-associated genes, one of the candidate genes for OCD

142
Q

Ombrophobia

A

fear of rain

143
Q

Omphalophobia

A

fear of belly buttons

144
Q

Orphidiophobia

A

fear of snakes

145
Q

Orbifrontal Cortex

A

a region of the brain that converts sensory information into thoughts and actions where higher activity has been found in OCD patients

146
Q

Overgeneralisation

A

cognitive error where you make a sweeping conclusion from a single incident

147
Q

Panic Attacks

A

when the hypothalmus activates the sympathetic branch of the nervous system which activates the adrenal gland on the kidneys which shuts down peripherals such as digestion, which causes someone to have a dry mouth, feel sick or be sick. The body’s muscles are ignited, causing fight or flight. Breathing rate, heart rate and blood pressure all raise, causing people to physically shake or pass out from breathing too much

148
Q

Papaphobia

A

fear of the Pope

149
Q

Paraphilia

A

unusual sexual behaviours characterised by deviation from social norms and causing harm and distress

150
Q

Exhibitionism

A

a form of paraphilia that involves flashing people

151
Q

Frotterism

A

a form of paraphilia that involves rubbing up against people in public

152
Q

Paedophilia

A

a form of paraphilia that involves attraction to children

153
Q

Consensual Sadomachism

A

used to be classed as a form of paraphilia, involves sexual acts that involve either inflicting or receiving pain

154
Q

Homosexuality

A

used to be classed as a form of paraphilia, as included in the DSM until the 1970s

155
Q

Transvestitism

A

used to be classed as a form of paraphilia, involves wearing clothes of the opposite gender for relaxation, enjoyment, expression etc.

156
Q

Pathologise

A

to make something into an illness

157
Q

Pauls et al

A

proved that there is a much higher percentage of OCD sufferers in relatives of patients with OCD than in the control group without OCD

158
Q

Parasympathetic Branch

A

overrides the sympathetic branch to calm down a person’s physiology

159
Q

Persistent Depressive Disorder

A

long-term or recurring depression

160
Q

PET Scans

A

Positron Emission Tomography Scans

a functional imaging technique that uses radioactive substances known as radiotracers to visualize and measure changes in metabolic processes, and in other physiological activities including blood flow, regional chemical composition, and absorption

161
Q

Phobia

A

anxiety disorders characterised by extreme irrational phobias

162
Q

Complex Phobia

A

more complicated phobias that are not of a specific thing

163
Q

Simple Phobia

A

phobia of a specific thing

164
Q

Pogonophobia

A

fear of beards

165
Q

Polygenic

A

where development of a mental abnormality is not determined by a single gene

166
Q

Portaphobia

A

fear of portaloos

167
Q

Post-Natal/Post-Partum Depression

A

a form of reactive depression where the activating event is having a baby, more common in people who really wanted a baby, where the brain chemistry is altered, causing lower levels of serotonin

168
Q

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder

A

disruption to mood prior to and/or during menstruation

169
Q

Psychopathology

A

the study of mental illnesses

170
Q

Rapaport and Wise

A

proposed that the hypersensitivity of the basal ganglia gives rise to the repetitive motor behaviours seen in OCD, for example, repetitive washing, cleaning or checking

171
Q

Reactive Depression

A

depression triggered by some sort of external event

172
Q

REBT

A

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy

a type of CBT based on Ellis’s ABC theory

173
Q

Reciprical Inhibition

A

describes the relaxation of muscles on one side of a joint to accommodate contraction on the other side

174
Q

Rectaphobia

A

fear of bottoms

175
Q

Rehabilitation

A

following a psychotic breakdown, many people struggle to follow social norms such as getting up, dressed and washing. These people often end up in rehabilitation centres where they re-learn to look after themselves.

176
Q

Saisto et al Experiment (2001)

A

Saisto studied expectant mothers and found that those who did not adjust personal goals to match the specific demands of the transition to motherhood and indulged in negative thinking had increased depression, supporting the idea that negative thoughts lead to depression

177
Q

Selective Attention

A

focusing on one piece of information while ignoring other information viewed as irrelevant

178
Q

Selective Judgement

A

where someone doing an assessment is subjective, as it may be the case that different assessors would disagree about whether a particular criteria had been met

179
Q

Serotonin

A

neurotransmitter which regulates mood, where lower levels have been associated with OCD, plays a role in happiness, appetite and sleep

180
Q

SERT Gene

A

gene which affects the transport of serotonin, causing lower levels of serotonin which is associated with OCD

181
Q

Sidonglobophobia

A

fear of cotton wool

182
Q

Spiritualists

A

take part in religious rituals believing they are communicating with the dead, so may be wrongly identified as mentally ill

183
Q

SSRIs

A

antidepressant drug used to treat OCD which work by preventing the re-absorption and breakdown of serotonin

184
Q

Statistical Frequency in IQ

A

70-130

185
Q

Stewart et al (2007)

A

study involved performing gene mapping on OCD patients and family members. They found that a variant of the OLIG-2 commonly occurred, supporting the idea that there are specific genes that lead to vulnerability to OCD

186
Q

Systematic Desensatisation

A

based on the idea of classical conditioning. The person is taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing which leads to reciprocal inhibition, activating the parasympathetic branch which calms the person’s physiology down. They develop a fear hierarchy with something that causes mild anxiety at the bottom and the worst fear possible at the top

187
Q

Thalassophobia

A

fear of deep water

188
Q

Tony and Glazioli Study (2000)

A

assessing 65 women for vulnerability before and after birth found that women with high vulnerability often had post-natal depression cognitions develop before pregnancy, showing how the negative triad increases likelihood of depression

189
Q

Tricyclic Antidepressants

A

these are used if SSRIs do not work, before antipsychotic drugs are considered. They work by preventing the reabsorption of serotonin and norepinephrine. High levels of these have been proven to cause anxiety and low levels, depression

190
Q

Triskaidekaphobia

A

fear of the number 13

191
Q

Twin Studies

A

look at congruence rates of monozygotic and dizygotic twins, as you should have a higher congruence rate in monozygotic than dizygotic twins if a condition is genetic. There is never a 100% congruence rate in all mental abnormalities, with a 45-50% concordance rate in monozygotic twins and a 15-20% concordance rate in dizygotic twins

192
Q

Two Process Model

A

how someone acquires a phobia, involves two processes

193
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

the acquisition or onset of a phobia, where an unconditioned stimulus previously paired with an unconditioned response of fear is paired with a neutral stimulus to produce the unconditioned response of fear, making the neutral stimulus a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response

194
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

the maintenance of a phobia

195
Q

Unconditioned Response

A

an response of fear that is natural, for example, one to loud noises or the dark

196
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus

A

something that it is natural to fear, for example, loud noises or the dark

197
Q

Unipolar Depression

A

a form of depression occurring without mania

198
Q

Vestiphobia

A

fear of clothing

199
Q

Wolpe’s Experiment (1960)

A

Joseph Wolpe used flooding to cure a girl’s phobia of cars by driving the girl around until she was exhausted and now associated cars with exhaustion rather than fear

200
Q

Xanthophobia

A

fear of yellow

201
Q

Zemmiphobia

A

fear of giant mole rats

202
Q

Zohar et al (1987)

A

Zohar gave mCPP to 12 OCD patients and a control group of 21 non-OCD patients. They found that the symptoms of OCD patients were significantly enhanced. This supports the idea that sufferers’ condition is related to abnormal serotonin levels

Psychology A-Level (17 decks)

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