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Psychology A-Level > Approaches in Psychology > Flashcards

Approaches in Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

17th-19th Century

A

psychology is seen as a branch of philosophy, at best it is understood as a branch of experimental philosophy

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2
Q

1873

A

Wundt publishes the first book on psychology, ‘Principles of Physiological Psychology’

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3
Q

1879

A

Wundt opens the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany. Psychology is now a subject in its own right.

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4
Q

1900s

A

Freud publishes the interpretation of dreams and the psychodynamic approach is established

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5
Q

1913

A

Skinner establishes the behaviourist approach; Watson psychology and behaviourist views are established

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6
Q

1950s

A

Rogers and Maslow develop the humanistic approach

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7
Q

1960s

A

the cognitive revolution came with the introduction of the digital computer; Bandura proposes the social learning theory

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8
Q

1980s

A

the biological approach begins to establish itself and be the dominant psychological perspective

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9
Q

Eve of the 21st Century

A

cognitive neuroscience emerges as a distinct discipline to bring together cognitive and biological approaches

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10
Q

Abraham Maslow

A

believes that humans are motivated beyond needs of biological survival and fundamental to human nature is the desire to reach your full potential. Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs emphasising uniquely human motivational factors, theorising that high level needs are a later evolutionary development of the human species

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11
Q

Alfred Adler

A

a neo-Freudist who believed that Freud focused too much on sex, so developed individual psychology, which was centred on the drive that all people have to compensate for their feelings of inferiority

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12
Q

Allport (1947)

A

combined the scientific methods of behaviourism with Freud’s theories of unconscious motivation

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13
Q

Anna Freud

A

youngest daughter of Sigmund Freud, had a strained relationship with her mother, followed her father into psychology and studied child development

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14
Q

BF Skinner

A

suggested that learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate in their environment, known as operant conditioning

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15
Q

Bruehl (1990)

A

stated that Freud’s characterisation of females simply reflected the reality of Western patriarchal structure of the time

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16
Q

Carl Rogers

A

pointed out that individuals strive to achieve self-actualisation because they are motivated towards self-improvement, felt that Freud had dealt with the “sick half” of psychology so humanists should concern themselves with explanations of health growth in humans

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17
Q

Cartesian Dualism

A

a theory by Rene Descartes, which states that the mind and body are separate things

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18
Q

Castration Anxiety

A

occurs during the Oedipus Complex, where a boy starts to feel sexual desire for his mother and is scared that if his father finds out, he will castrate him. This is far more fearful than penis envy, hence males have a stronger superego and are more moral than females

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19
Q

CCT

A

where the therapist provides clients with unconditioned positive regard and the person is studied in their environmental context, ideographically, as an individual case

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20
Q

Charles Darwin

A

came up with evolutionary theories, allowing for the emergence of psychology as a science

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21
Q

Cognitive Approach

A

applying scientific methods to make inferences about thought processes

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22
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience

A

the biological basis for thought processes

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23
Q

Congruence

A

where there is consistency between ideal self and actual behaviour

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24
Q

Consciousness

A

the small amount of mental activity we know about, which is unaware of activity in the unconscious, eg thoughts, perspectives

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25
Q

Continuous Reinforcement

A

where the desired behaviour is reinforced every single time it occurs, possibly resulting in a stronger response

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26
Q

Czikzentmilyi and Hunter (2003)

A

used introspection to study happiness in their work in the area of positive psychology

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27
Q

Defence Mechanisms

A

used by the ego to maintain balance between the id and superego, to avoid anxiety and intra-psychic conflict

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28
Q

Blocking

A

a phenomenon in which a previously-learned thought process prevents or delays the learning and conditioning of new behaviour

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29
Q

Denial

A

refusing to believe something because it is too painful to acknowledge the reality

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30
Q

Displacement (in DM)

A

transferring feelings from the true source of the distressing emotions onto a substitute target

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31
Q

Distortion

A

faulty or inaccurate thinking, perception, or belief

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32
Q

Repression

A

unconscious forgetting; forcing a distressing memory from the conscious mind

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33
Q

Sublimation

A

where you sublimate your true desire for something socially acceptable

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34
Q

Deficiency Needs

A

a term for all of the levels of Maslow’s 5-level hierarchy of needs apart from the top level of self-actualisation

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35
Q

Determinism

A

the theory that there is a reason for all behaviour

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36
Q

Dream Analysis

A

Freud described this as ‘the royal road to the unconscious’. This involves a therapist interpreting dreams in order to provide insight about what the dream represents. Freud thought this was a way of accessing the unconscious mind.

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37
Q

Dream Work

A

where the unconscious mind alters the true meaning of the dream into something less disturbing; the process that alters latent content into manifest content

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38
Q

Condensation

A

involves combining several ideas into a single dream object or event; for example, a dog representing both your father and your lover

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39
Q

Displacement (in DW)

A

involves shifting the emotional significance of an object to a less important object; for example, Freud claimed that animals in dreams represent other people

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40
Q

Secondary Elaboration

A

involves the unconscious mind stringing together images into a logical order of events

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41
Q

Symbolisation

A

involves the representation of a repressed idea through symbols; for example, a ladder may symbolise ambition

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42
Q

Edlington Attacks

A

in 2009, two brothers, aged 10 and 11, tortured and attempted to kill two other boys, aged 9 and 11, in a premediated attack that was interrupted by a dog walker. The brothers’ father was abusive and hit them, their mother and their younger siblings. Social learning theory states that these boys had seen that their father, who hurt others, was never hurt himself, therefore he was rewarded for his violence. If the boys hurt others, they would not be hurt themselves, and would therefore be rewarded

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43
Q

Ego

A

develops between 1-3 years and is executive of the personality, using its cognitive abilities to manage and control the id and balance its desires against the restrictions of reality and the superego. The ego aims to gratify the id’s impulses in line with what is realistically possible considering the environment it’s in

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44
Q

Ego Ideal

A

inner image of oneself as one wants to become

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45
Q

Empiricism

A

a theory by John Locke, encapsulating the belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience and can be studied using the scientific method

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46
Q

Eros

A

the instinctive drive to survive

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47
Q

Evolutionary Theories

A

those by Charles Darwin, which set the stage for the emergence of psychology as a science

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48
Q

Experimental Psychology

A

the recognised term for psychology between the 17th and 19th century

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49
Q

Father of Psychology

A

a name for Wilhelm Wundt

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50
Q

Fixation

A

failure to successfully navigate a stage’s particular conflict, leaving some libido left in that stage. Fixation at any stage determines adult personality and behavioural traits, and traces from that stage will remain in their behaviour as an adult. Fixation may occur due to trauma, pleasant or unpleasant experiences, change in environment, and does not necessarily need to happen during that stage, but may happen afterwards and cause someone to regress back to that stage

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51
Q

Fixed Rate Ratio

A

where the behaviour is reinforced after a certain number of presses, used in token economies in prisons, schools and psychiatric institutions

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52
Q

Free Association

A

the individual is encouraged to relax and say anything that comes into their mind, however ridiculous. The idea is that the ego will be unable to carry out its normal role of keeping check of threatening unconscious impulses, an the conflict can be brought into consciousness. Once verbalised, the therapist can interpret and explain

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53
Q

Freudian Slips

A

the result of conflict between unconscious and conscious interaction, considered to reveal unconscious associations and motives

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54
Q

Fully-Functioning Person

A

someone who has achieved all levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, including self-actualisation

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55
Q

Gestalt Therapy

A

involves helping the client become whole by getting them to accept every aspect of themselves using techniques such as confrontation, dream analysis and role playing

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56
Q

Griffiths (1994)

A

used introspection to study the cognitive processes of fruit machine gamblers by asking them to think out loud whilst playing a fruit machine into a microphone on their lapel

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57
Q

Growth Need

A

a term for the need to achieve self-actualisation as theorised by Maslow

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58
Q

Holism

A

an idea seen in the humanist approach where you look at the whole person

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59
Q

Horney (1927)

A

stated that Freud’s work has no face validity in assuming that a woman is mentally affected by a wish for male attributes and that if women envied men, it would be because of social status

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60
Q

Humanist Psychology

A

believes in the ideas of free will, self-actualisation and congruence

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61
Q

Ideographic Approach

A

based on case studies and techniques that are subjective and open to bias

62
Q

Individual Psychology

A

developed by Alfred Adler, a neo-Freudist who believed that Freud focused too much on sex, so developed this approach that centred on the drive that all people have to compensate for their feelings of inferiority

63
Q

Inference

A

an assumption on mental processes that cannot be directly seen

64
Q

Intra-Psychic Conflict

A

conflict between the id and superego, leading to anxiety that the ego attempts to avoid by using defence mechanisms to maintain balance

65
Q

Introspection

A

involves participants reflecting on their own cognitive processes and describing them, an idea that Wundt came up with that is now only used when studying gambling addicts

66
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

the Russian man who discovered classical conditioning in the late 1800s to early 1900s. Whilst studying the enzymes in dog’s saliva, he noticed that the dogs would start salivating as soon as they heard the footsteps of the researcher who fed them. Pavlov realised the dogs had associated food with this stimulus. He later conditioned the dogs to associate food with bells. He later applied this to humans, repeating the experiment with children.

67
Q

John Locke

A

came up with the empiricism theory

68
Q

Karen Horney

A

a neo-Freudist who theorised that if girls experience penis envy, males must experience breast envy

69
Q

Latent Content

A

the true meaning of dreams; the repressed ideas in the unconscious mind that later appear

70
Q

Libido

A

psychic energy that fuels the eros

71
Q

Little Hans Experiment

A

5-year-old Hans developed a phobia of horses after witnessing a horse fall over, as he believed the horse had died. Freud psychoanalysed Hans and theorised that Hans was experiencing the Oedipus Complex, meaning he wanted to possess his mother and saw his father as a rival. He displaced his fear of his father onto the horse as the horse’s blinkers reminded him of his father’s glasses and the black around the horse’s mouth reminded him of his father’s beard and moustache

72
Q

Machine Reductionism

A

comparing humans to computers, ignoring ideas of emotions and motivation on the cognitive system

73
Q

Maguire et al (2000)

A

the aim was to investigate the function of the hippocampus in spatial memory, the participants for this study were sixteen healthy, right-handed, male licensed London taxi drivers It was a matched pairs design with 50 people who did not drive tests. The hippocampi of the taxi driver was significantly larger than the control subjects and the hippocampal volume correlated wit the amount of time spent as a taxi driver; this was a natural experiment

74
Q

Manifest Content

A

the dream as it appears to the dreamer

75
Q

Maslow’s 5-Level Heirarchy of Needs

A

a psychological theory that suggests needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to higher needs, developed by Abraham Maslow

76
Q

Top Level (5)

A

self actualisation – accomplishment, mental growth

77
Q

Second Level (5)

A

esteem – approval, recognition, self-confidence

78
Q

Third Level (5)

A

social – friendship, group membership, social connection

79
Q

Fourth Level (5)

A

safety – physical safety

80
Q

Bottom Level (5)

A

physiological – food, shelter, clothing

81
Q

Maslow’s 7-Level Heirarchy of Needs

A

an edited version of Maslow’s original hierarchy of needs that is now more commonly used

82
Q

First Level (7)

A

self actualisation – accomplishment, mental growth

83
Q

Second Level (7)

A

self actualisation– accomplishment, mental growth

84
Q

Third Level (7)

A

aesthetic needs – music, art, nature

85
Q

Fourth Level (7)

A

cognitive needs – self-awareness, pursuit of knowledge

86
Q

Fifth Level (7)

A

esteem – approval, recognition, self-confidence

87
Q

Sixth Level (7)

A

social – friendship, group membership, social connection

88
Q

Seventh Level (7)

A

safety – physical safety

89
Q

Bottom Level (7)

A

physiological – food, shelter, clothing

90
Q

Mediational Process

A

described as the bridge between traditional behaviourism and the cognitive approach, these are the mental thought processes that the approach talks about and help mediate the learning process to determine whether a behaviour is worth acquiring

91
Q

Attention

A

the extent to which we notice certain behaviours

92
Q

Retention

A

the extent to which the behaviour is remembered

93
Q

Motor Reproduction

A

the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour

94
Q

Motivation

A

the will to perform the behaviour which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished

95
Q

Modelling

A

where a person decides whether or not to imitate a behaviour

96
Q

Neurosis

A

negative emotional state

97
Q

Nisbett and Wilson (1977)

A

found that most people are remarkably unaware of what is influencing their behaviour

98
Q

Nomothetic

A

the opposite of ideographic, meaning something is scientific

99
Q

Oedipus-Electra Complex

A

causes the superego and gender identity to develop as the child identifies with one or other parent

100
Q

Electra Complex

A

unconsciously, the girl realises she doesn’t have a penis, so starts to develop penis envy. She knows her father has a penis, so starts to develop sexual feelings for him and sees her mother as a rival. As the mother does not have a penis, the girl blames her mother for her own lack of penis, believing her mother has castrated her. To resolve this, the girl identifies with her mother. Her superego and gender identity develop and penis envy is replaced with a desire for a baby

101
Q

Oedipus Complex

A

unconsciously, the boy starts to desire his mother and want to have sex with her. This leads to guilt and fear of the father, whose place the boy wants to take, and the fear takes the form of castration anxiety. The boy wishes to kill his father, and he is scared his father will castrate him if he finds out about his feelings for his mother. To resolve the desires of the id conflicting with the conscience of the superego, the boy identifies with his father, taking on his beliefs and values. This leads to the boy developing a superego and a sense of gender identity. The boy replaces his desire for his mother with a desire for other women.

102
Q

Overactive Id

A

where someone is selfish and takes what they want

103
Q

Overactive Superego

A

where someone feels guilty all the time and so commits crimes to be punished

104
Q

Parapaxes

A

the result of conflict between unconscious and conscious intention, considered to reveal unconscious associations and motives

105
Q

Partial Reinforcement

A

where the desired response is reinforced only part of the time, resulting in a weaker response

106
Q

Penis Envy

A

occurs during the Electra Complex when the girl realises she doesn’t have a penis and becomes unconsciously convinced that her mother has castrated her. This is not as fearful as castration anxiety, as the girl does not identify as strongly with her mother and so has a weaker superego. Females never completely resolve the Electra Complex, so are not as moral as males

107
Q

Phallic Personality

A

where someone is narcissistic, reckless or possibly homosexual due to fixation in the phallic stage

108
Q

Pleasure Principle

A

operates the id, springs from the eros and the Thanatos

109
Q

Pleasure Zone

A

the area where the person gets pleasure from during each psychosexual stage

110
Q

Positive Psychology

A

the study of human flourishing

111
Q

Preconscious

A

things we could be aware of if we wanted to or tired e.g. memories, stored knowledge

112
Q

Primary Activity

A

activities that occur to gain pleasure during each of the psychosexual stages

113
Q

Primary Process

A

used by the id to satisfy its needs, operates according to the pleasure principle

114
Q

Primary Reinforcer

A

where a behaviour is immediately followed by a reinforcement or punishment

115
Q

Principles of Physiological Psychology

A

the first book on psychology, published by Wilhelm Wundt in 1873

116
Q

Pseudoscience

A

fake science

117
Q

Psyche

A

personality

118
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

involves effort to understand defences and unconscious motives during self-destructive behaviours

119
Q

Psychosexual Stages

A

Freud proposed that all children go through the same five states of development. Psychodynamic theory states that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality. Events that occur in childhood can remain in the unconscious, and cause problems as adults.

120
Q

Oral Stage

A

happens between 0-12/18 months

At this point, a child only has an id, and has not yet developed an ego or superego.
The focus of their libido is the mouth. Babies explore with their mouths and get pleasure from putting things in their mouths, being breast- or bottle-fed or sucking their thumbs.
Fixation in this stage can lead to nail-biting, over-eating, pen-biting or smoking, or being sarcastic or critical

121
Q

Anal Stage

A

happens between 1-3/4 years

The focus of libido is the anus as this is when toilet-training takes place. The ego develops as parents impose restrictions. This is the first time the child experiences any sort of control.
This stage is split into two sub-stages.

122
Q

Anal-Expulsive Stage

A

where children get pleasure from expelling faeces. Fixation in this sage can lead to messiness and an explosive temper

123
Q

Anal-Retentive Stage

A

where children get pleasure from withholding faeces. Fixation in this stage can lead to being obsessive, controlling and not generous

124
Q

Phallic Stage

A

happens between 3/4 – 5/6 years

The focus of libido is on the genitals as the child becomes more curious. The superego develops as a result of the Oedipus-Electra complex. Identification with one or other parent leads to the formation of gender identity. This was formed after Freud heard about parents experiencing sexual problems when their child was that age.
Fixation in this stage can lead to a phallic personality

125
Q

Latency Stage

A

happens between 5/6 – puberty onset

earlier conflicts are repressed and gender identity is solidified as children spend more time in single-sex situations.
Fixation in this stage has no effect

126
Q

Genital Stage

A

happens from puberty onwards

sexual desires, which have remained unconscious since the development of the Oedipus-Electra Complex, now become conscious alongside the onset of puberty. Fixation in this stage can lead to difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.

127
Q

Q-Sort Assessment

A

developed by Stephenson in 1953 and was quickly adopted into CCT by Carl Rogers. This measures a person’s congruence using a series of cards each containing a personal statement. The person is first asked to choose ten cards to describe their ideal self and ten cards to describe their real self

128
Q

Reality Principle

A

the principle which the ego operates according to

129
Q

Reductionism

A

reducing complex phenomena to simple explanations

130
Q

Rene Descartes

A

came up with the idea of cartesian dualism

131
Q

Role Models

A

a person becomes a role model if they possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive or have high status; they may not be physically present, hence media has important implications of behaviour

132
Q

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A

a test developed in 1921 by Swiss Psychologist Hermann Rorschach, similar to the free association, the ego is unable to keep check of threatening unconscious impulses, bringing the conflict to the conscious

133
Q

Scientific Method

A

must be objective, systematic and replicable

134
Q

Secondary Reinforcement

A

where the desired behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs, possibly resulting in a stronger response

135
Q

Skinner’s Box

A

the rat of pigeon is placed in a box, having not been fed. The subject is hungry and performs various exploratory behaviours. By chance, they press the lever and food appears. Eventually, the subject learns that pulling the level gives them food, but the behaviour stops because the subject is full

136
Q

Sigmund Freud

A

lived in the late 1800s, trained as a neurologist and then worked treating hysterical women, applying findings from abnormal patients to normal development

137
Q

Soft Determinism

A

the view that determinism and free will is compatible

138
Q

Structuralism

A

involves studying the structure of the human mind and breaking behaviours down into basic elements, established by Wilhelm Wundt

139
Q

Subconscious

A

things we could be aware of if we wanted to or tried

140
Q

Superego

A

develops between 3-6 years, insists we do the right thing, enforces moral restrictions, battles id impulses and opposes its desires, develops through identification with one or other parent, at which point the child internalises moral rules and social norms of society

141
Q

Thanatos

A

the result of an unconscious wish for death that all humans have that is largely tampered by eros

142
Q

Third Wave

A

another term for humanist psychology as it was developed to contest Freudism and behaviourism

143
Q

Tripartite

A

composed of three parts

144
Q

Unfalsifiable

A

where ideas cannot be refuted, so is unscientific

145
Q

Variable Rate Ratio

A

where the behaviour is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times, meaning behaviour will be prolonged and most resistant to extinction; the psychology behind gambling

146
Q

Vicarious Reinforcement

A

for indirect learning to take place, the individual observes the behaviour of others. The learner may imitate this behaviour but only when it is seen to be rewarded rather than punished, thus the individual observes the behaviour but more importantly the consequences

147
Q

Williams (1987)

A

argues that Freud’s theory is not alpha-bias because he did not claim that innate factors made men and women difference, rather that the social context transforms biological factors into mental representations that create difference, therefore explaining differences in terms of mental and social representation

148
Q

Williams and Best (1982)

A

found that men are more aggressive, dominant, independent and autonomous compared with women, who are more nurturing, deferent, affiliated and are encouraged to develop expressive roles

149
Q

Wish Fulfilment

A

the theory that dreams represent unconscious desires, thought and motivates that the conscious mind suppresses

150
Q

Womb Envy

A

a theory put forward by Karen Horney that states men must envy women because of their ability to have children, so men compensate for that inability by achievement in other domains

Psychology A-Level (17 decks)

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