Forensic Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
40 Point Test
A
test for psychopathy
2
Q
44 Thieves Study
A
Bowlby studied 88 emotionally disturbed juveniles in a retrospective study which involved interviews with those who knew the juveniles and examining their school, medical and police records. Half of these were identified thieves and half had no known criminal record. Of the group of thieves, 17 had been separated from their mothers for more than six months during their first five years of life, whereas in the non-criminal group, only two had been separated
3
Q
Adopted Child Syndrome
A
a controversial term used to explain behaviour in adopted children including problems bonding, attachment disorders, lying, stealing, defiance of authority and acts of violence
4
Q
Affectionless Psychopathy
A
where people appear not to care about anything or anyone due to lack of love and care in early years
5
Q
Aileen Wuornos
A
a female serial killer who murdered men that she believed that committed rape, as revenge for her father raping a seven-year-old girl
6
Q
Alarid et al (2000)
A
tested 1153 convicted criminals for the extent to which differential association theory could explain their offending behaviour and found that differential association served a good general theory of crime and could explain offending behaviour, especially in men, so it is necessary to look at the context of offending
7
Q
Allyon (1979)
A
found the same as Hobbs and Holt in adult prisons
8
Q
Alvaro and Gibbs (1996)
A
measures cognitive distortions in anti-social young adults and found a strong correlation between levels of anti-social behaviour and minimilisation, indicated that offenders use minimilisation with negative behaviours to help them deal with their actions
9
Q
Anxiety and PTSD
A
argues that offenders imprisoned for serious crimes may experience flashbacks and anxiety as a result; arguably the prison environment gives them a greater chance to reflect on what they have done, lading to increased psychological problems
10
Q
Atavistic Form
A
a disproven theory by Lombroso which stated you could tell who would be a criminal by looking at them
11
Q
Bartol (1995)
A
suggested imprisonment is brutal because suicide rates are 15 times higher amongst prisoners than in the general population and 25% of women and 15% of men in prison suffer from psychological disorders triggered in prison, so custodial sentencing is not as effective as rehabilitation, particularly for the vulnerable
12
Q
Biological Determinism
A
if crime is biologically determined, how can people be held accountable for the crimes they commit?
13
Q
Bassett and Blanchard (1977)
A
benefits of token economies are lost if rules are applied inconsistently due to lack of training or high staff turnover
14
Q
Blackburn (1993) (Eyesenck Evaluation)
A
studied African Caribbean and Hispanic criminals with a matched control group and found criminals were less extraverted, therefore disproving Eysenck’s theory, then pointed out that very few studies have been carried out on the emotional wellbeing of prisoners, which is perhaps down to societal prejudice towards criminals, making it difficult to know whether inmates should be offered psychological help and support, which may help in their rehabilitation and reduce recidivism
15
Q
Blackburn (1993) (Token Economies)
A
token economies have little rehabilitative value and any positive changes may quickly be lost when offenders are released; progress is unlikely to continue following release because rewards from committing crime are greater
16
Q
Blackburn (1993) (CBT/Anger Management)
A
there is little evidence that anger management reduces recidivism long-term because role play doesn’t cover all possible situations in which a trigger could arise in real life
17
Q
Bottom Up Profile (UK Version)
A
developed during an investigation into John Duffy, the Railway Rapist by social psychologist David Canter, focuses on five main assumptions
18
Q
Interpersonal Coherence
A
there is a consistency between the way offenders interact with their victims and with others in their everyday lives, for example, degree of domination gives clues to physical strength
19
Q
Time and Place
A
the time and place of an offender’s crime may communicate something about their place of residence or employment
20
Q
Criminal Characteristics
A
crimes tend to be committed in a similar fashion by offenders and can provide indication of how their criminal activity will develop
21
Q
Forensic Awareness
A
offenders who show an understanding of a police investigation are likely to have had previous encounters with the criminal justice system
22
Q
Brower and Price (2001)
A
found a link between frontal lobe dysfunction and violent crime
23
Q
Brunner et al (1993)
A
conducted an analysis of a large family in The Netherlands, a number of whom were responsible for crimes like rape, arson and exhibitionism. They found that males in that family had a genetic mutation in the MAOA gene
24
Q
Brunner’s Syndrome
A
a genetic condition caused by a genetic mutation of the MAOA gene which causes a deficiency in the enzyme monoamine oxidase A, which is responsible for metabolism of neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine. This leads to the overproduction of serotonin, which causes the brain to become desensitised to it, leading to low IQ (average of 85) and aggression. Because the MAOA gene is on the X chromosome, women can only be carriers of Brunner’s
25
Buitelaar (2003)
found that juvenile delinquents given dopamine antagonists which reduce levels of dopamine showed a decrease in aggressive behaviour
26
Canter and Youngs (1988)
developed geographical profiling
27
Charles Whitman
murdered his wife and mother on 1st August 1966 and then carried out a spree shooting, shooting 45 people and killing 13, and was killed by police. A post-mortem found that Whitman had a tumour the size of a walnut pressing on his amygdala, impacting his aggression and emotional regulation
28
Christiansen (1977)
in a sample size of 3586 pairs of twins found an MZ concordance rate of 35% and a DZ concordance rate of 13%
29
Circle Theory
states that if you draw a circle around all the locations of the crime scenes, the offender is likely to live in the middle; this is used to determine residential location
30
Application Practice
first part of CBT for violent offenders
offenders are given the opportunity to practice their skills within a monitored environment using role-play; the successful response would be met with positive reinforcement from the therapist
31
Cognitive Preparation
second part of CBT for violent offenders
the offender reflects on their past experience of anger and triggers. The therapist will aim to identify if the response is irrational and aim to break an irrational automatic response in the future
32
Skill Acquisition
third part of CBT for violent offenders
offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with triggers more effectively
33
Behavioural Skills
assertiveness training to help them communicate more effectively
34
Cognitive Skills
positive self-talk
35
Physiological Skills
methods of relaxation and/or meditation
36
Cognitive Distortions
patterns of negative or exaggerated thought, which can reinforce maladaptive behaviour
37
Hostile Attribution Bias
a cognitive style that makes the assumption that other people’s reactions are a negative reaction to the self
38
Minimalisation
downplays the effect of the crime by the offender, a form of self-deception where the offender does not accept the full reality of the situation and will attempt to rationalise what they have done, blaming the victim, trivialising the situation and reducing feelings of guilt
39
Overgeneralisation
downplays the effect of the crime by the offender, a form of self-deception where the offender does not accept the full reality of the situation and will attempt to rationalise what they have done, blaming the victim, trivialising the situation and reducing feelings of guilt
40
Cohen and Filipczak (1971)
found that token economy groups showed more desirable behaviour than control groups, and for the first two years after release, are less likely to reoffend; however, after three years, rates of recidivism went back to reflecting national statistics
41
Commuters
commit crimes away from where they live and are usually organised
42
Conjugal Visit
a scheduled visit where a prisoner is permitted to spend time with their legal spouse to have sex. This is legal in 6 US states but illegal in the UK
43
Conventional Morality
where most law-abiding citizens are, where they decide what is right or wrong based on what the law says
44
Copson (1995)
found that only 14% of senior police officers believed that profiling aided them in solving cases
45
Crewe (1972)
found that fifty percent of adopted children whose biological parents were convicted criminals had a criminal record by the age of eighteen
46
Crick and Dodge (1994)
found evidence to support a relationship between hostile attribution bias and aggression in children and that this existed both in hypothetical situations and real situations
47
D'Alessio (2012)
suggested this may reduce sexual skills they can use after release
48
Daniel (2006)
argues that the first 30 days of incarceration is the high-risk period where people are most likely to commit suicide, similar to how anxiety and depression is highest then
49
David Canter
developed the bottom up profiling method during an investigation into the Railway Rapist
50
Depression and Stress
the loneliness and boredom facing prisons exposes this vulnerability so depression and anxiety are extremely common. However some research indicates that this is more likely to occur at the beginning of a prison sentence whilst prisoners adjust to their situation
51
Deterrence
one of the aims of custodial sentencing, to dissuade people from committing crime
52
General Deterrence
dissuades general society from committing crime
53
Individual Deterrence
dissuades criminals from reoffending
54
Defence Mechanisms
used by the ego to maintain balance between the id and superego, to avoid anxiety and intra-psychic conflict
55
Blocking
a phenomenon in which a previously-learned thought process prevents or delays the learning and conditioning of new behaviour
56
Denial
refusing to believe something because it is too painful to acknowledge the reality
57
Displacement
transferring feelings from the true source of the distressing emotions onto a substitute target
58
Distortion
faulty or inaccurate thinking, perception, or belief
59
Rationalisation
explains behaviour in a rational and acceptable way when it is actually very negative
60
Repression
unconscious forgetting; forcing a distressing memory from the conscious mind
61
Sublimation
where you sublimate your true desire for something socially acceptable
62
Depression and Stress
the loneliness and boredom facing prisons exposes this vulnerability so depression and anxiety are extremely common. However some research indicates that this is more likely to occur at the beginning of a prison sentence whilst prisoners adjust to their situation
63
Deviant Superego
occurs if a parent is deviant, you are likely to adopt similar behaviours and morals and commit the same crimes as them
64
Differential Association Theory
where individuals learn values, attitudes, motives and techniques for criminal behaviour through association and interaction with different people
65
Disorganised Offender
crime is generally unplanned and haphazard, they are likely to leave more clues, more likely to know the victim, often familiar with the crime scene, socially inadequate, have an unskilled occupation, is the first or last born, sexually incompetent, lives alone, is frightened or confused at the time of the murder, and has a high ACE score
66
Dooley (1990)
suggests suicide rates in prison is 4 times higher than in the general population
67
Dopamine Aggressors
medications that reduce levels of dopamine
68
Dopaminergic Activity
occurs in the limbic system, causes pleasure to be experienced and the greater the activity, the greater the feeling of pleasure
69
Douglas et al (1986)
stated that the concept of profiling is to not identify one specific person; the aim of profiling is to identify a specific type of person
70
Eclectic Approach
anger management works on many levels, therefore acknowledging the complexity of offender behaviour
71
Extrovert
have a high optimum level of arousal, and their general state is underaroused
72
Eysenck (1977)
used an unmatched control group and found that when filling out a questionnaire, criminals had high PEN scores
73
Eysenck and Gudjonsson (1979)
a repeat of Eysenck’s 1977 experiment that found the same findings
74
Eysenck's Personality Questionnaire
measures extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism with a series of yes/no questions
75
Eysenck's Personality Theory of Crime
believed criminal behaviour is a result of personality, which is determined biologically, and the environment
76
Geographical Profiling
a form of bottom-up profiling focusing on a time and place, developed by Canter and Youngs, identified that there are a number of clues regarding the place crimes are committed in relation to the offender, dividing offenders into marauders and commuters
77
Centrality
as crime scenes are likely to occur in a familiar area to the offender; this means crime scenes tend to cluster
78
Comparative Case Analysis
this is the assumption that the crimes are being committed by the same offender and therefore increases the precision of geographical profiling
79
Locatedness
in any violent crime, it may be that several locations are relevant; for example, an offender may meet the victim in one place, attack them elsewhere and dispose of their body elsewhere
80
Systematic Crime Location Choice
this is the assumption that crime scenes are not random; the offender will likely have some kind of connection or familiarity with the area
81
Gilligan (1972)
argues that mal views of morality are more likely to be law-based and pragmatic, whilst women will be more influenced by compassion and care
82
Goring (1913)
Goring looked at the facial features of 3000 criminals and non-criminals and found no evidence for facial characteristics of criminals
83
Gudjonsson (1984)
developed a measure for the attributions offenders use to blame others for their criminal behaviour by asking them to self-report the extent they blame the circumstances of the environment, blame mental illness of lack of self-control and feel guilt or remorse
84
Hans Eysenck
a theorist of personality who propped that personality is biologically based and that the two most important personality traits are the dimensions of extraversion and neuroticism, which may lead to crime if there are dangerous levels of them
85
Heather (1977)
found among a population of Scottish inmates increased signs of psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions
86
Heinz Dilemma
one of Kohlberg’s dilemmas for his boys. Heinz’s wife is dying of terminal cancer and Heinz goes to a chemist who can cure her but who is massively overcharging how much money he really needs for the cure. Heinz gives him half the money he asks for, so the chemist is still making a massive profit. Heinz then broke into the chemist’s lab and stole the cure
87
Higley et al (1996)
found that levels of testosterone were positively correlated with aggressiveness but not impulsivity, whereas levels of serotonin were negatively correlated with impulsive behaviour and extreme aggression, but not general aggression, but this work was done on male non-human primates, suggesting how biochemical levels may underpin offender behaviour
88
Hobbs and Holt (1976)
across three young offenders' institutes, token economies were introduced whilst a fourth acted as a control condition; the token economy groups showed a significant difference in the amount of positive behaviour
89
Hollin (1989)
found that somebody may be unfavourable toward stealing but be okay with putting false information on a tax return and thus breaking the law, which accounts for the nature of many different types of crime that not many explanations of offending behaviour can
90
Hollin et al (2002)
found that offenders tend to be at a lower level of moral development than non-offenders and different types of offenders show different types of moral reasoning
91
Holmes (1989)
found that only 46% of cases where offender profiling was used resulted in arrest and in only 17% of cases did the profile contribute to that arrest
92
Holtzworth-Monroe and Hutchinson (1993)
found a link between hostile attribution bias and domestic violence and that men who abused their wives were more likely to think that the woman was being negative toward the husband and that her intentions were hostile
93
Hooton (1939)
conducted a 12-year study comparing 13873 male prisoners in 10 US states with a control group of 3023 men, arguing that criminal behaviour was due to biological inferiority and degeneration, and that certain physical features indicated criminal behaviour
94
Howitt (2009)
points out that Eysenck’s theory lacks explanatory power because it does not explain why certain criminals commit certain crimes and has no rehabilitative value
95
Hypothetical Vignettes
used to measure hostile attribution bias with little stories that can be interpreted as hostile, ambiguous or benign, and an individual rates how angry they would feel if they faced with the imaginary situation
96
Impact Statements
where victims explain the impact of crime
97
Incarceration
the offender is taken out of society to prevent them committing more crime; the sentence depends on the crime and more incarceration is given for more serious crimes like murder
98
Insitutionalisation
having adapted to the customs of prison life, offenders find it difficult to function outside of prison
99
Introverts
have a low optimum level of arousal and are generally over-aroused
100
John Duffy
known as the Railway Rapist, Duffy committed 23 assault over 4 years and it was this case that David Canter developed his bottom-up profiling method
101
Kandel and Freed (1989)
looked at frontal lobe damage and anti-social behaviour and found that there was a tendency for such individuals to exhibit emotional instability, a failure to consider the consequences of their actions to adapt their behaviour in response to external cues and these traits would seemingly be a result of impaired functioning in the frontal lobes, the region responsible for planning behaviour
102
Kaplan (1980)
states that poor appearance is linked with poor social interactions and can bring about criminal behaviours due to low self-esteem and a reluctance to conform
103
Keen (2000)
the National Anger Management Package was trialed by young offenders in England and Wales aged 17 to 21. There were initial issues of offenders not taking the course seriously but offenders later reported high levels of self-control and increased awareness after the course
104
Kennedy and Grubin (1992)
investigated the use of minimalization by sex offender and found that most offenders tried to excuse their behaviour by blaming the victim and a third of offenders denied any involvement with the partner and twenty-five percent believed that their victim benefited in some way from the abuse, suggesting that minimilisation is used extensively by certain offenders for certain crimes
105
Keysers (2011)
found that only when criminals were asked to empathise with a person depicting pain on a film did they do so
106
Kohlberg (1963)
heavily influenced by the work of Piaget and believed that children’s cognition developed through stages, found by presenting boys aged 7, 10, 13 and 16 with 10 dilemmas in a 2-hour interview and seeing their moral reasoning
107
Kohlberg's 1st Stage of Moral Reasoning
Punishment Stage
the most basic reasoning, where someone does something if they know they won’t be punished for it
108
Kohlberg's 2nd Stage of Moral Reasoning
Reward Stage
the stage most criminals are in, where they do something if they know they will gain from it
109
Kohlberg's 3rd Stage of Moral Reasoning
Good-Boy/Good-Girl Stage
the stage that considers what other people will think of you
110
Kohlberg's 4th Stage of Moral Reasoning
Law-and-Order Stage
the stage that considers obedience to law
111
Kohlberg's 5th Stage of Moral Reasoning
Social Contract Stage
the stage that adheres to the law but may commit a crime in certain circumstances where they feel the law should not apply
112
Kohlberg's 6th Stage of Moral Reasoning
Ethical Principle Stage
the stage where the individual has their own code and may commit a crime if they feel the law is unjust
113
Krakowski (2003)
argued through research that whilst serotonin was implicated in lack of impulse control and violence, to make a causal link is difficult, and it also depends on individual difference sand the social context of the behaviour
114
Kruppa (1991)
argues that offenders imprisoned for serious crimes may experience flashbacks and anxiety as a result. Arguably the prison environment gives them a greater chance to reflect on what they have done, leading to increased psychological problems
115
Latimer et al (2012)
overall feedback is positive compared to other forms of punishment, showing the importance of being committed to the programme and feeling positive about it
116
Lombroso (1893)
argued that the criminal is a separate species to the human, somewhere between modern and primitive humans and that the physical shape of the head and face determined the born criminal
117
Loza-Fanous (1999)
devised a psychometric test and discovered there was little difference between non-violent and violent offenders; anger management courses may also give offenders an excuse or justification for their behaviour
118
Mann et al (1990)
drugs which reduced serotonin increased measures of hostility and aggression in males, but not females
119
MAOA Gene
a gene linked to crime and aggression that controls dopamine and serotonin production and mutations in this lead to Brunner’s syndrome
120
Maternal Deprivation Theory
theory of criminal behaviour that believes a person does not receive enough love and care in their early life, they will be unable to form positive relationships in adulthood and will see the world as a hostile place, so will become delinquent
121
Mauran and Mann (2006)
investigated whether minimilisation was used to deal with the guilt of perpetrating a crime, and argued that prison interventions that tried to reduce minimilisation were unhelpful because minimilisation is actually a healthy psychological strategy and interventions should focus on offenders taking responsibility for the future rather than the past
122
Maurauders
commit crimes close to where they live or feel se cure and are usually disorganised
123
NCCHR
National Commission on Correctional Healthcare Report (2002)
estimated prevalence of depression affects 13-19% of the prison population
124
McCrae and Costa (1999)
edited Eysenck’s personality constructs into their own, now disproven, five factor model of personality that predicted crime: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness and neuroticism
125
McGurk et al (1981)
believed that Eysenck’s theory was reductionist because most criminals are normal people put in bad circumstances
126
Mednick (1984)
in a study of 14000 adoptees, 13% of children adopted by parents with criminal records had a criminal record by the age of eighteen, 20% of children whose biological parents were criminals had a criminal record by the age of eighteen and 24% of children whose adopted and biological parents were criminals had a criminal record by the age of eighteen
127
Megargee (1966)
carried out case studies of extremely violent offenders and found that they suppressed anger until it came out all at once, known as the strangulation effect
128
Miers et al (2001)
found most meetings were received favourably but some victims felt offenders were taking part for the wrong reasons
129
Mirror Neurones
controls empathy response
130
Moir and Jessel (1995)
cite a number of human and animal studies which suggest a link between low levels of serotonin and aggression, which is linked to criminal behaviour
131
Monogamy
mates with one partner
132
Moya and Achtenburg (1974)
offenders are not given any choice over participating in the token economy and withdrawal of privileges such as exercise or phone calls to family may be ethically admirable
133
Neurotics
people with more reactive nervous systems, particularly autonomic nervous systems which control adrenaline, so are jumpy, sensitive to stress, nervous and moody
134
Offender Profiling
provides a description of the offender based on analysis of the crime scene, the victim and other evidence
135
Organised Offender
one that plans the crime, shows self-control at the scene, is careful to cover their tracks, leaves few or no clues, is likely to attack strangers, attempts to control the victim, is intelligent, has a skilled occupation, is socially and sexually competent, is married or cohabiting, is angry or depressed at the time of the murder, is likely to follow the story in social media and likely has a high ACE score
136
Overdeveloped Superego
means that an individual is likely to feel overwhelming feelings of guilt and shame, so commits crime to give them a sense of relief because they can then be punished and relieve their conscience
137
Polyandry
one woman with multiple men
138
Polygyny
one man with multiple women
139
Postconventional Morality
where most terrorists are, but also people like the Suffragettes, Martin Luther King and Nelson Mandella, where people develop their own moral code regardless of laws on what they believe to be right and wrong
140
Preconventional Morality
where most criminals are, where people develop their moral code on what will get them punished and what will get them rewarded
141
Prisonisation
refers to the way inmates are socialised into adopting an inmate code; behaviour that may be considered unacceptable in prison may be encouraged and rewarded in prison
142
Pro-Criminal Attitudes
attitudes where committing crimes is okay
143
Promiscuity
both partners with multiple partners
144
Psychodynamic Explanation of Crime
suggests that if the superego is formed improperly then the conscience and ability to modulate behaviour will be affected
145
Psychotic Disorders
far more common amongst prisoners than in the general population
146
Psychoticism
a measure of hostility, cruelty and lack of care about others, so do not feel empathy for others; high levels indicate vulnerability to mental illness
147
Raine (1993)
in a meta-analysis of 13 studies, found an MZ concordance rate of 52% and a DZ concordance rate of 21%
148
Raine et al (1997)
found reduced activity in the offender group in areas such as the prefrontal cortex and corpus callosum and the limbic system, including the amygdala and thalamus
149
Rasch (1981)
found evidence of psychotic ideation in 50% of a sample of German prisoners
150
Rehabilitation
the belief that prison should rehabilitate offenders so they leave prison better adjusted and can return to society
151
Restorative Justice
where the offender and victim meet, has to be voluntary and active for all parties and seeks a positive outcome
152
Retribution
society is punishing the criminal, and the punishment should be proportionate to the crime
153
Richard Ramirez
found guilty of committing 13 murders, 5 attempted murders, 11 sexual assaults and 14 burglaries but his father was physically abusive to him and his siblings, his cousin was a murderer and rapist who taught him military skills he could use in murders and showed him footage of murders and rapes and his brother-in-law was a Peeing Tom
154
Robert Napper
known as the Green Chain Rapist, murdered Rachel Nickell in 1992 and Samantha and Jazmine Bisset in 1993, but wasn’t caught until 2008 because he was so different to the offender profile, which instead pointed toward innocent Colin Stagg
155
Robert Wrestler
developed the top down profile in order to solve the Green River Murderer
156
Rosen (1980)
argues that Heinz Dilemma lacks validity because children have no way of assessing their moral reasoning on the situation from their own perspective as they have never faced a similar situation, so the situation has no consequences or realism to them
157
Rossmo (1997)
refers to offender behaviour as having ‘hunting patterns’ and through examining the locations of crime scenes and their relation to each other in space, it can tell us more about where the criminal is located
158
Scerbo and Raine (1993)
conducted a meta-analysis on 29 pieces of research into anti-social adults and children, finding in all cases, low levels of serotonin
159
Self-Harm and Suicide
particularly high at the beginning of their incarceration
160
Sherman and Strang (2007)
meta-analysis concluded there is no way restorative justice can cause more harm than the traditional justice system and it is at least as effective as the traditional system, for example, it is significantly more effective at lowering recidivism and PTSD in victims
161
Speilberger (1988)
found a relationship between hostile attribution bias and aggression, suggesting that the individual misinterprets social situations or cues, which leads them to behave in a hostile or aggressive manner
162
Thornton and Reid (1982)
suggests that criminals committing crime for financial gain show more immature reasoning than those committing violent crimes
163
Three Mountains Task
a study Piaget did to study child development. He would show children a paper mâché mountain with some figures on one side and have them sit facing the figures whilst he sat on the other side. He then asked them what they could see and what he could see to see if they understood that he couldn’t see the same thing as him
164
Tiihonen et al (2014)
revealed abnormalities in two genes associated with violent crime, the MOMA gene, which controls dopamine and serotonin, and the CHD13 gene, which has been linked to Substance Abuse Disorder and inattentive ADHD
165
Token Economies
based on the behaviourist principles of behaviour modification and operant conditioning, where offenders are rewarded for obedience and punished for disobedience
166
Top-Down Profile (US Version)
developed during an investigation into the Green River Murderer by Robert Wrestler of the Behavioural Science Unit of the FBI, developed using interviews with 36 convicted serial killers combined with information from the scene of crime, some of which went on for over 30 hours. This was then used to develop a classification system for serious crimes splitting criminals into organised and disorganised
167
Stage 1 Data Assimilation
collect all available information
168
Stage 2 Crime Classification
put the crime into a particular category based on data collected
169
Stage 3 Crime Reconstruction
develop hypothesis about the behaviour of victim and develop modus operandi about offender
170
Stage 4 Profile Generation
suggest offender’s physical appearance, demographic information and habits and personality
171
Underdeveloped Superego
means ability to feel guilt is impaired, so the individual is dominated by id impulses and therefore performs criminal or sexual acts
172
Wilson and Daly (1985)
make the argument that there is an evolutionary cause in crime because offending behaviour is invariably risky and risk-taking is an attractive equality for females, because taking risks in hunting expeditions increased likelihood of survival, which in term yielded greater rewards in terms of food for the woman and her family
173
Zamble and Perporino (1988)
conducted a longitudinal study of prisoners and found that whilst anxiety and depression is high at the start of a sentence it decreases over time
