Attachment Flashcards
2 weeks
baby starts to see fine detail
3 months
baby starts to hold head up
4 months
baby starts sitting up
4-6 months
baby develops object permanence
6 months
baby starts crawling and babbling
9 months - 12 months
baby starts walking
12 months
baby starts to say simple words
18 months
baby starts to join words together
18 months - 24 months
baby’s skull fuses
24 months
baby starts to say simple sentences
44 Thieves Study
Bowlby studied 88 emotionally disturbed juveniles in a retrospective study which involved interviews with those who knew the juveniles and examining their school, medical and police records. Half of these were identified thieves and half had no known criminal record. Of the group of thieves, 17 had been separated from their mothers for more than six months during their first five years of life, whereas in the non-criminal group, only two had been separated
Affectionless Psychopathy
where people appear not to care about anything or anyone
Ainsworth
a cross cultural study of a tribe in Uganda and found that their children made multiple attachments. The same was found in repeats of the study in Israel and Kibbutz
Ainsworth and Bell (1970)
claimed that securely attached children have mothers who are more effective at soothing them, engaging in face-to-face interaction and having more physical contact, and insecure children have mothers who are insensitive to signals such as crying and inept at handling them
Alert Phase
times when baby is ready for interactions
Alessandra Simonelli et al (2014)
conducted a study in Italy to see whether the proportions of babies of different attachment types still matches those found in previous studies. They assessed 76 twelve-month-old babies using the Strange Situation and found 50% were secure, 36% were insecure-avoidant and the remaining percent were insecure-resistant. This is a lower rate of secure and a higher rate of insecure-avoidant than has been found previously, likely due to increasing numbers of mothers using professional childcare, suggesting that patterns of attachment types are not static but vary in line with cultural change
Altricial
species like humans that are born at an early stage of development
Anna Freud (1951)
a case study of six three-year-olds rescued from Nazi concentration camps. They were antisocial and aggressive when they arrived at a refugee centre in England, however by bonding with each other they became socially normally within about three years
Attachment
an enduring two-way emotional bond to a specific other person
Baby Duck Syndrome
Peter Seebach (2005) suggested that computer users form an attachment to their first computer operating system, leading them to reject others
Bailey (2007)
Bailey assessed 99 mothers and infants using the Strange Situation and interviews. The majority of mothers had the same type of attachment with their mother as with their own infant
Belsky (1984)
found that the weight of evident seemed to indicate that the caregiver’s behaviour has more to do with attachment than the infant’s temperament
Belsky (1999)
believed that insecure-avoidant attachments are associated with intrusive, over-stimulating, rejective parenting, whereas insecure-resistant attachments are linked to inconsistent, unresponsive parenting
Belsky et al (2009)
found secure father infant attachments to be associated with high levels of marital intimacy, suggesting that the closeness of the relationship between fathers and partners affect the type of attachment a father has with his children
Brazelton et al (1975)
interaction is described as a dance because each partner responds to the other’s moves
Bretherton et al (1981)
suggested that parents who ssee their children as people rather than entities that need to be fed and clothed are more likely to have securely-attached children
Bulldog Banks Study (1951)
Freud and Dann studied a group of six refugee children aged between three and four who were discovered by Russian troops in a concentration camp in the Czech republic, where they had lived since they were a few months old, so had never formed attachments. After they were rescued, they lived together at the Bulldog Banks Reception Centre in West Sussex. They were highly aggressive and had limited language skills, and would only engage with adults if they needed something. Despite this, they were devoted to each other, insisting that they all had the same amount of food at mealtimes. They made improvements after being rescued and were eventually all adopted and continued to make progress, to the point where they were the same as most children their age.
Caldera (2004)
a study on 60 mothers and fathers with 14-month-old infants who independently described their child about the involvement and attitudes toward child-rearing finding that where there was a stronger agreement between parents on attitudes toward child-rearing there was stronger attachment for both parents
Caregiverese
a form of modified vocal language used by adults as they interact with infants, which includes high-pitched, song-like vocals that are slow and repetitive. These vocals help with communication between the infant and caregiver while also strengthening the attachment bond
Chateau and Wiberg (1984)
found the same results to those of Klaus and Kennel but with Swedish mothers, so disputing Durkin’s later claims
Child of our Time Study
a famous longitudinal study that followed the same people from 2000 to 2020
Chomsky (1968)
maintained that language acquisition is the result of innate cognitive structures and biologically based inborn brain mechanisms and children are predisposed to make sounds and understand grammar
Condon and Sander (1974)
studied interactional synchrony, theorising that it starts from the initial consolidation of biological rhythms during pregnancy to the emergence of symbolic and often rhythmic exchanges between parent and child. They analysed videos of mothers interacting with their babies. They noticed that even newborns co-ordinate their movements and gestures in time with human speech. There was an element of turn taking and the babies seemed to respond to the one-sided conversation
Continuity Hypothesis
the idea that there is consistency between early emotional experiences and later relationships, based on the internal working model
Critical Period
the time within which attachment must form if it is to form at all. After this time, attachment is far more difficult and damage done by early deprivation becomes irreversible
Cupboard Love
theory that we become attached to the one who feeds us
Curtiss (1977) and Rymer (1993)
studied Genie Wiley
De Wolff and van Ijzendoorn (1997)
believed that insecure-avoidant attachments are associated with intrusive, over-stimulating, rejective parenting, whereas insecure-resistant attachments are linked to inconsistent, unresponsive parenting
Dollard and Miller (1950)
pointed to the fact that babies in their first year are fed 2,000 times, usually by the main carer. This gives opportunity for the carer to become associated with the removal of the unpleasant feeling of hunger, supporting attachments being formed through operant conditioning.
Durkin (1995)
disputed Klaus and Kennell’s findings, claiming that they were due to the attention given to mothers who were unmarried and poor, rather than increased physical contact
Environment of Evolutionary Adaptiveness
the environment in which pre-human species evolved into homo sapiens, where predators were a constant threat
Ethologists
researchers who promote the use of naturalistic observation to study animal behaviour, focusing on the importance of innate capacities and the adaptiveness of behaviour
Ethology
the study of animal behaviour in their natural environments
Erickson et al (1985)
observed 4 to 5-year-olds in pre-school settings and found that children who were securely attached were less dependent on the teacher and were more confident undertaking tasks than insecurely attached children
Degree of Senstivity
a factor affecting the father-child relationship
father-child attachment is generally more secure if the father is more sensitive to the needs of the child
Type of Attachments with Own Parents
a factor affecting the father-child relationship
single fathers in particular to form similar attachments to their children when compared to their attachment to their parents
Marital Intimacy
a factor affecting the father-child relationship
the attachment type between parents affects attachment with their child
Supportive Co-Parenting
a factor affecting the father-child relationship
the amount of support a father gives their partner affects the type of attachment with their child
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages (1950)
splits development up into eight stages, each involving a conflict that, if resolved, leads to a virtue
Infancy
(0-1 year)
Trust vs Mistrust
trust that basic needs will be met, leads to hope
Early Childhood
(1-3 years)
Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt
develops sense of independence in many tasks, leads to will
Play Age
(3-6 years)
Initiative vs Guilt
takes initiative in some activities, develops guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries are overstepped, leads to sense of purpose
School Age
(7-11 years)
Industry vs Inferiority
develops self-confidence in abilities when competent and inferiority when not, leads to competency
Adolescence
(12-18 years)
Identity vs Confusion
experiment with and develop identity and roles, leads to fidelity
Early Adulthood
(19-29 years)
Intimacy vs Isolation
establish intimacy and relationships with others, leads to love
Middle Age
(30-64 years)
Generativity vs Stagnation
contribute to society and be a part of a family, leads to being caring
Old Age
(64+ years)
Integrity vs Despair
access and make sense of life and the meaning of contributions, leads to wisdom
Feldman (2007)
from the age of roughly three months, alert phases tend to be more frequent and involve close attention to each other’s verbal signals and facial expressions
Feldman and Eidelman (2007)
mothers typically pick up and respond to baby’s alert phases approximately two thirds of the time
Field (1978)
Field filmed 4-month-old babies interacting with their primary and secondary caregivers and found that if fathers took the role of primary caregivers, they behaved the same as a mother who was a primary caregiver, showing that behaviour is more important than gender
Filial Imprinting
where a baby instinctively imprints on the mother
Fonagy and Target (1997)
suggested that parents who see their children as people rather than entities that need to be fed and clothed are more likely to have securely-attached children
Furstenberg and Kiernan (2001)
found that children who have experienced divorce suffer not only emotionally, but also in terms of emotional wellbeing, academic attainment and physical health
Geiger (1996)
found that the way fathers play with their children is more exciting and pleasurable than mothers. This supports the view of the father as a playmate
Gervai (2009)
theorised that genetic factors are involved in disorganised attachment
Glaswegian Babies Study/Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
a longitudinal study aimed to investigate the formation of early attachment in particular the age at which they developed
Pre-Attachment Stage/Asocial Stage
happens at roughly zero to three months, although infants demonstrate preference for humans and may demonstrate preference for familiar humans over strangers, they largely behave the same to humans and inanimate objects and behave the same to most humans
Indiscriminate Attachment
happens at roughly three to seven months, but may take up to a year, infants begin to display more observable social behaviour, showing clear preference for humans over inanimate objects, recognising familiar people and preferring familiar people, but the infant does not show separation or stranger anxiety
Specific Attachment
happens somewhere between seven and twelve months, babies begin to show stranger anxiety and form a specific attachment to a primary attachment figure and show separation anxiety when separated from that figure
Multiple Attachments
happens somewhere between nine and twelve months, babies begin to form secondary attachments to other people they regularly spend time with shortly after their primary attachment
Goldberg et al (1994)
analysed 30 video recordings of the SST, gathered in a longitudinal study of Canadian children and found that insecure-resistant children babies cried more than other babies and were more often responded to negatively, that insecure-avoidant babies rarely showed emotion, but when they did, it was often happy and was rarely responded to
Goldfarb (1943)
longitudinal study of 15 infants who spent the first few months of the lives in an orphanage. One group when straight to foster homes, the other group stayed in the orphanage until they were three. Those who went straight to foster homes performed better in tests of intelligence, language skills and sociability when tested at 6, 8 and 12 years old and the institutional group had a craving for affection and an inability to form lasting relationships
Grossman (2002)
a longitudinal study beginning in the 80s and finishing by 2000, looking at parents’ behaviour and its relationship to the quality of children’s attachment experience up to the teens to ascertain how important fathers are and whether they have a distinct role. It concluded that the quality of infant attachment with fathers is unimportant but the quality of fathers’ play with infants was related to the quality of adolescent attachment, suggesting that fathers play a different role in attachment, providing play and stimulation instead nurture
Grossman (1985)
found no difference in sensitivity between mothers of securely attached and mothers of insecurely attached children
Greylag Geese
the type of geese that Lorenz experimented on
Guiton et al (1966)
found that chickens who imprinted on yellow washing up gloves would try to mate with them as adults but, with experience, they eventually learnt to prefer other chickens. This suggests that the impact on mating behaviour is not as permanent as Lorenz believed
Hardy (1999)
found that fathers are less able than mothers to detect low levels of infant distress, suggesting that males make unsuitable primary attachment figures
Harry Harlow’s Monkeys (1958)
Harlow took eight baby monkeys away from their mothers at birth and raised them in a cage with a cloth mother and a wire mother. Half of the monkeys had a feeding bottle attached to the wire mother and half to the cloth mother, however all of them showed preferred to the cloth mother regardless of who dispensed milk. When frightened or placed in an unfamiliar environment, the monkeys sought comfort from the cloth mother, showing that contact comfort was of more importance to the monkeys than food when it came to attachment behaviour
Hazan and Shaver (1987)
found that adults’ romantic attachments were closely linked to their infant attachments
Hetherington and Stanley-Hagan (1999)
found that few children suffer long-term adjustment problems and that most adapt to their change in circumstances
Hodges and Tizard (1989)
longitudinal study of institutionalised children who had formed no attachments in the early parts of their lives found that they had difficulty forming relationships with their peers later on
Howe (1998)
found that Harlow’s research had helped social workers and clinical psychologists understand that a lack of bonding experience may be a risk factor in childhood development allowing them to intervene to prevent poor attachments. We also now understand the importance of attachment figures for baby monkeys in zoos and breeding programs in the wild
Imprinting
where animals attach through instinct to the first thing they see
Innate
Bowlby argues that attachments have evolved to ensure survival and we are born with the instinct to form an attachment
Interactional Synchrony
caregiver and infant reflect both actions and emotions in a synchronised way
Internal Working Model
the monotropic attachment forms the basis for all future attachments
Isabella et al (1989)
found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant interactions
James and Joyce Robertson
produced a series of cine films showing the effects of hospitalisation on young children, allowed children’s wards in hospitals to start letting mothers stay with their young children
Kegan (1984)
children with difficult temperaments who dislike change in routine may have been upset by the Strange Situation so may have been seen as insecurely attached
Keller et al (1988)
found that patterns of eye contact and conversation between mothers and infants were similar in four diverse cultures (German, Greek, Yanomami-Indians and Trobriand islanders)
Kerns (1994)
securely attached infants have better relationships in later childhood than insecurely attached infants
Kibbutz Children
Israel has the highest rate of insecure-resistant children due to their Kibbutz communities. In Kibbutz communities, children are raised in communes away from their parents. Until the age of 18, children rarely see anyone outside of the people in their small commune and their parents, who visit for a few hours a day. It is thought that this practice promotes equality as mothers are not forced to stay at home and care for children
Klaus and Kennel (1976)
compared mothers who displayed extended physical contact with their babies with mothers who only contacted with their infants during feeding in the three days after birth. After one month, the mothers who displayed greater physical contact were found to cuddle their babies more and make greater eye-contact with them than the mother who made less contact. These effects were still evident a year later, suggesting that greater physical contact leads to an attachment bond that is closer and stronger
Koluchova (1976)
studied the Czech twins, Andrei and Vanya
Konrad Lorenz’s Geese (1935)
investigated instincts behind attachment and how attachments are formed in geese, Lorenz removed half a group of goose eggs from the mother goose and placed them in an incubator. When they hatched, Lorenz was the first moving thing they saw. Lorenz later took these goslings and the ones who had hatched with the mother to a field. The mother gosling walked away in one direction and Lorenz walked off in the other direction. All the goslings who hatched with the mother followed her, and all the goslings who hatched in the incubator followed Lorenz
Lamb (1987)
found that children often interact with their fathers when in a positive emotional state and so are seeking stimulation rather than comfort
Lamb (1997)
discovered that once a father becomes the main care provider, he quickly develops more sensitivity towards his children’s needs, suggesting sensitive responsiveness isn’t a biological ability limited to women
Lorenz (1952)
a case study describing a peacock that had been read in the reptile house of the zoo where the first moving object the peacock saw after hatching were giant tortoises. As an adult, the peacock would only direct courtship behaviour toward giant tortoises
Love Quiz
a questionnaire by Shaver and Hazan in 1987 on influence of early attachment
Lyons-Ruth and Jacobvitz (1999)
attachments are more common among abused and maltreated infants, and among infants exposed to other pathological caregiving environments
Main and Weston (1981)
found that children tested in the strange situation with their father and mother showed different attachment types depending on which parent they were with
Malin (1997)
observed Australian aboriginal infants who are discouraged from exploring because of the threats and distractions of food, so tend to stay close to their mothers, and use them as secure bases. Because of the differences in Australian aboriginal child-rearing practices, these infants were incorrectly labelled as insecurely attached and many were placed in care.
Maternal Deprivation
the emotional and intellectual consequences of separation between and child and their mother or substitute
Meins et al (2001)
carried out a study of 71 mothers and their infants where, as well as Strange Situation assessments of the infants when they were aged 12 months, the mothers were observed playing with their babies for 20 minutes at 6 months old. The findings suggested that parents who ssee their children as people rather than entities that need to be fed and clothed are more likely to have securely-attached children
Meltzoff and Moore (1977)
observed interaction synchrony beginning as early as two weeks old, shown by the experimenter pulling three different faces and the baby copying them
Mi-Kyoung (2005)
used the Strange Situation to compare 87 Korean and 113 American families. Korean infants did not stay close to their mothers and when their mothers returned, they were more likely to play with their infants. This shows that there is not one specific child-rearing technique that leads to secure attachment
Mimicking
infants imitate the facial expressions of the caregiver, suggesting an innate biological drive to form an attachment bond
Monotropy
one single attachment is the most important attachment
Myron-Wilson and Smith (1988)
assessed attachment type and bullying involvement using standard questionnaires in 196 children aged 7-11 in London. Secure children were very unlikely to be involved in bullying. Insecure-avoidant children were most likely to be victims and insecure-resistant children were most likely to be bullies
Object Permanence
develops at around 4-6 months, where baby realises that things exist when they can’t see them
Papousek et al (1991)
found that the use of caregiverese was cross-cultural, suggesting that it is an innate device
Pedersen (1979)
has argued that outcomes could be due to socio-economic background, as many of the studies have focused on female single mothers and poorer families
People Permanence
a permanent bond with another person
Posada et al (1999)
found evidence that across all cultures, babies with more sensitive parents are more likely to be securely attached
Primary Attachment
happens at around seven to twelve months, where a baby forms a bond to one specific person, the mother in around sixty-five percent of cases
Private Speech
talking to yourself, thinking out loud. This helps children think through what they’re doing, and as we age, this becomes internal
Psychosocial Development
happens when children form relationships, interact with others, and learn to understand and manage their feelings
Quinton et al (1984)
a longitudinal study of 94 women reared in an institution when compared with 51 women from the general population. They were interviewed in their 20s and observed with their own children. The institution group showed poorer psychosocial functioning and were more likely to report parenting difficulties. However, a supportive spouse and good living conditions did mitigate these findings in some of the institution women.
Rabain-Jamin (1989)
found a greater amount of conversation between French mothers and their children than between West African mothers and their children
Reciprocity
caregiver and baby respond to each other’s signals to elicit a response
Regoff (2003)
found that because black American infants are encouraged to be friendly to strangers, the Strange Situation procedure activates their instincts to explore. This indicates that the strange situation procedure has different meaning for different cultures.
Regolin and Vallortigara (1995)
chicks were exposed to simple shape combinations such as a triangle with a rectangle in front. A range of shape combinations were then moved in front of them and they followed the original most closely. This supports the idea that animals are born with an innate mechanism to imprint on a moving object present in the critical window of development, as predicted by Lorenz
Richards (1987)
found that while attachment disruption through divorce is more likely to result in resentment and stress, death of an attachment figure is more likely to lead to depression
Rogers and Pryor (1988)
found that children who experienced more than two divorces have the lowest adjustment rates and worst behavioural problems
Ross et al (1975)
a correlational study measuring the number of nappies changed compared with strength of attachment, found that the more nappies changed, the stronger the attachment was between caregiver and child
Rutter (1970s)
studied 2300 families on the Isle of Wight, found that stress and anxiety surrounding separation was a critical factor. Children were able to recover from separation of eight parent if provided with care and support
Rutter (1995)
proposed a model of multiple attachments that stated that all attachments are of equal importance and attachments combine to help form a child’s internal working model
Schaffer (1996)
Schaffer went back and revised some findings from his 1964 study, including updating the asocial phase and renaming it the pre-attachment phase
Sheungel et al (1999)
theorised that disorganised attachment may be a consequence of parental behaviours that infants find frightening
Secondary Attachments
formed somewhere between nine months and one year, where a baby begins to form attachments with more than one person that they spend time with regularly
Secure Base
linked to monotropy, the person you seek proximity to and run back to when scared
Seeking Proximity
an infant wants to stay close to the caregiver
Seltzer (2010)
found that when preteen girls did brain-teasers in public (a stressful experience), girls who then saw their mothers afterwards had the largest reduction in stress (as measured by the cortisol levels in their saliva), measuring pre-teen attachment
Sensitive Period
following criticism, Bowlby changed his critical period, stating that if a child does not form attachments in the first few years of life, when the instinct to attach is strongest, it will become incredibly difficult down the line, but not impossible
Separation Anxiety
an infant displays anxiety when separated from a caregiver
Sexual Imprinting
acquiring a template of characteristics of a desired mate
Skeels and Dye (1939)
compared the intellectual development of two groups of orphans. One group was raised in a normal institution which provided adequate care and met the children’s physical needs, but the staff were too busy to give the children individual attention. The other group were raised in an institution for women with mental disabilities, who gave the orphans lots of love and attention. After 18 months, the IQ of children raised in the normal institution had fallen from an average 87 to 61 points, whilst the children raised by the women with mental disabilities had a corresponding average increase from 64 to 92 points.
Skin-to-Skin Contact
physical interactions help to form the attachment bond in the very early period, particularly, immediately after birth
Sensitive Responsiveness
the idea that mothers are more nurturing so can better recognised and respond to the baby’s needs
Social Releasers
babies elicit behaviours which instinctively make carers respond
Spangler (1990)
found that the mother’s responsiveness was influenced by her perception of the infant’s temperament and that mothers who saw their children as difficult became less responsive to them by 24 months
Spitz and Wolf (1946)
observed 123 babies of mothers in prison, who were separated from their mothers for three months after birth. During separation, they cried more and lost weight, even though they were adequately cared for my other experienced mothers. When returned to their mothers, they began to thrive again
Sroufe et al (2005)
longitudinal study following participants from infancy to late adolescence and found that early attachment type predicted later emotional and social behaviour.
Strange Situation
the standardised way to measure attachment in toddlers. Involves a controlled observation involving eight different episodes and measure the baby’s responses in terms of seeking proximity, stranger anxiety, separation anxiety and reunion behaviour, an idea developed by Mary Ainsworth in 1978
Stranger Anxiety
an infant displays anxiety when picked up by a stranger
Temperament Hypothesis
Keagan 1984
states that we have inborn temperamental differences which can affect both infant and adult attachments. This sees attempts to develop better quality relationships by changing people’s attachment styles as not working
Thomas and Chess (1977)
classified forty percent of 138 New York infants as having easy temperaments, 10% as difficult and 15% as ‘slow to warm up’. The remaining 35% were classified as ‘mixed’. Many aspects of these temperaments were evident within the first weeks of life remained into adulthood
Thompson (1988)
found evidence that across all cultures, babies with more sensitive parents are more likely to be securely attached
Thompson and Lamb (1984)
found that behaviour of infants in the strange situation is dependent on the infant’s inborn temperament and not their mother
Tizard, Rees and Hodges (1978)
a longitudinal study of children who had been in care from a few months of age to three years old and then adopted, and a group who had always lived with their families. Both were assessed at two, four and eight years old. Although at the age of two none of the children in care had formed attachments but by the age of eight, all of them had
Winnicott (1965)
came up with the idea of ‘good enough mothering’. Winnicott believed that infants need to experience ‘tolerable frustrations’ as well as love
Secure Attachment
occurs in 60-75% of children, where children explore happily, but regularly exhibit proximity seeking and secure base behaviour, show moderate stranger anxiety and separation anxiety and accept comfort at reunion stage; thought to be down to having a sensitive, responsive, caring mother
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
occurs in 20-25% of children, where children explore happily, exhibiting no proximity seeking or secure base behaviour. They show no separation anxiety or stranger anxiety and require no comfort at the reunion stage; thought to be down to having a dismissive mother
Insecure-Resistant Attachment
occurs 3% of children, where children seek greater proximity and show more secure base behaviour, so explore less. They show huge stranger anxiety and separation anxiety but resist comfort at the reunion stage; thought to be down to having an inconsistent mother
Van Ijezndoorn and Kroonenberg (1998)
a meta-analysis of 32 cross-cultural studies on attachment showing that although secure attachment is the most common attachment type, there are cultural variations which may be explained by child rearing styles rather than attachment problems. Therefore, the Strange Situation does appear to be culturally biased towards Western child rearing practices.
West Germany
3 studies
57% secure
35% avoidant
8% resistant
Great Britain
1 study
75% secure
22% avoidant
3% resistant
The Netherlands
4 studies
67% secure
26% avoidant
3% resistant
Sweden
1 study
74% secure
22% avoidant
4% resistant
Israel
2 studies
64% secure
7% avoidant
29% resistant
Japan
2 studies
68% secure
5% avoidant
27% resistant
China
1 study
50% secure
25% avoidant
25% resistant
United States
18 studies
65% secure
21% avoidant
14% resistant
