Relationships Flashcards
Absence of Gating Theory
theory by Burgh et al that virtual relationships are relatively anonymous so barriers to relationship formation are removed and gates can be hidden in virtual relationships allowing self-disclosure and intimacy to develop, avoiding distractions that might occur otherwise; when the gate is revealed, it doesn’t matter as much
Absorption-Addiction Model
developed by McCutcheon in 2003, who stated that reasons for having a parasocial relationship could be poor sense of identity, poor psychological adjustment (eg stress), lack of fulfilment in life, allowing an escape from reality to seek fulfilment -a behaviourist theory because the escapism is the reward
Absorption
the person is looking for satisfaction in celebrity worship in order to achieve a sense of fulfilment, therefore motivating them to become even more intensely attached to the celebrity
Addiction
sense of fulfilment becomes addictive, meaning the individual needs a more intense involvement to sustain commitment in the relationship, causing extreme behaviours like delusional thinking and stalking
Accommodation
putting up with minor things
Actual Equity
where contributions by each partner are equitable and fair
Akert (1998)
found that women have more desire to ‘stay friends’ after a breakup whereas men want to ‘cut their losses’ and ‘move on’ and that the partner who did not instigate the break-up tended to be more upset about it
Altman and Taylor’s Social Penetration Theory
says that self-disclosure is a gradual process of revealing your inner self to somebody else and in romantic relationship we give away our deepest thoughts and feelings in a reciprocal exchange. By revealing personal information, we are displaying trust and for the relationship to go further, the person must reveal sensitive information, thereby penetrating more deeply into each other’s lives
Anderson et al (2003)
argued, from the results of their longitudinal study, that the emotional responses of partners in long-term relationships become more alike over time rather than being similar from the start
Androcentric
male-orientated, where females are not included in studies or theories
Anisogamy
a term used by evolutionary psychologists to refer to the different behaviours that humans exhibit in order to increase their reproductive success
Anonymity
when you’re aware that other people do not know your identity, you feel less accountable for your behaviour; this can lead to someone disclosing more about themselves
Argyle (1987)
argues that we do not measure costs and rewards in a relationship, nor do we consider the effectiveness of alternatives, until we are dissatisfied with the relationship
Aronson et al (1966)
found that the matching hypothesis also applied to homosexual couples
Attraction
the most important three attributes are proximity and familiarity, similarity and physical appearance
Aumer-Ryan et al (2006)
show that the concept of equity is more important in Western cultures than non-Western cultures, where people prefer over-benefit from relationships
Baker and Bellis (1995)
found that 9% of fathers not really the biological father of their child and 29% of people in an E-poll in 2003 admitted to having an affair, suggesting that the majority of humans are not adulterous, challenging the idea of promiscuity being part of human nature
Bargh et al (1999)
Bargh et al (2002)
people are more likely to share personal information with a stranger that they will never see again, known as the Strangers on a Train Phenomenon
Benevolents
people who are less sensitive to relationship inequality
Bereczkei et al (1997)
argue that women’s participation in the workplace has had consequences for mate preferences, which may no longer be resource orientated
Berg and McQuinn (1986)
longitudinal research of 38 dating couples found that there were no real differences in equity between the couples who split up and the couples who stayed together - other variables such as self-disclosure were found to be more important to long-term happiness than equity
Bernard Murstein Study 1972
involved showing pictures of ninety-nine couples to participants, with the pictures separate, so participants could not tell who were couples. They were asked to rate each person on physical attractiveness. The scores for real couples were far similar than randomly assigned couples.
Biological Market Place Explanation
theorised by Noe and Hammestein in 1995, states that social behaviours are transactional, where different traits are traded for mutual benefit
Boom and Bust Relationships
occurs in virtual relationships, where lots of self-disclosure early on then makes it impossible to maintain to the relationship intensity because the foundation of trust isn’t there
Breadth
information covering a wide range of topics
Bruce and Young (1998)
found that both men and women like facial symmetry
Buss (1989)
study involving 10000 people from 37 widely diverse cultures and found that women desired men with financial ambition, but men are more concerned with physical attractions and mates who were younger than them, both of which are cues of fertility and reproductive value; both sexes desired intelligence, kindness and dependability, all of which are linked to the qualities needed for long-term investment in children
Buss (1995)
males can produces lots of sperm for much of their life, whereas females make a greater investment in offspring. Because of this, females choose males that are able and willing to invest in their offspring and these males achieve higher reproductive success. This led to the development the Paternal Investment Theory
Buss (2003)
theorised that women want men who invest resources in her and the children who are able to physically protect her and the children, show signs they will be a good parent and are compatible enough to ensure minimal costs to her and her children, whereas men are attracted to females who display signs of fertility
Buss and Schmitt (1993)
theorised that men lower their expectations regarding short-term mating opportunities and show a marked decrease in attraction following sex in order to bring about a hasty departure, preventing them from spending too much time with one woman
Byrne (1997)
noted that similarity in attitudes is important for the first eighteen months of a friendship, where similarity causes attraction
Catherine Cameron Study 1977
a study of personal adverts that found that women tend to promote themselves in terms of socially favoured personality and physical characteristics such as sense of humour, outgoing, slim, attractiveness, suggesting women think men look for personal attractiveness. Men tended to highlight their economic status, often using terms such as ‘professional’ and ‘homeowner’, suggesting men think women want security.
Chang (2011)
compared partner preferences over 25 years and found that some changed but others remained the same, corresponding with huge social changes in that time
Clark and Mills (2011)
argued that the theory fails to distinguish between two types of relationship: exchange relationships which do involve social exchange, and communal relationships which are characterised by the giving and receiving of rewards without keeping score of who is ahead or behind
Clarke and Hatfield (1989)
found that when asked by a stranger, 50% of women agreed to go on a date, 6% agreed to go back to his flat and 0% agreed to sex, whereas 50% of men agreed to go on a date, 69% agreed to go back to her flat and 75% agreed to sex
Cole and Leets (1999)
found that adolescents with insecure-resistant attachments were more likely to have parasocial relationships with television media personalities than those with secure and insecure-avoidant attachments, supporting the idea that those with insecure-resistant attachments are more attracted to parasocial relationships
Communal Relationships
romantic relationships characterised by the giving and receiving of rewards without keeping score of who is ahead or behind
Comparison Level
how much a person expects based on previous relationships they’ve had compared to their current relationship
Comparison Level for Alternatives
comparing how much our current relationship gives in comparison with other possible relationships that we could get into
Computer Dance Study
752 students brought welcome week tickets for a computer dance. When they brought the tickets they were told that their information would be fed into a computer and this would provide an ideal match for them, but in reality they were matched randomly. An unseen observer scored them on attractiveness. After two hours, they were asked how much they liked their partner. Those who were more attractive liked the most, which does not support the matching hypothesis, but those who matched were most likely to still be dating in six months, which does support the matching hypothesis
Cooper and Sportolari (1997)
found that the anonymity of online interactions gave web-users a sense of security and made them disclose personal information much earlier, making relationships more intense. However because the necessary trust foundation has not been established, the intensity of the relationship is impossible to sustain, leading quickly to break-up and demonstrating that breadth must come before depth, supporting Social Penetration Theory
Cunningham (1986)
found that women who displayed childlike features such as large eyes and small noses were attractive to men
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
characteristics that give a human or animal the best chance of survival and reproduction will be prized
David Buss Study 1989
David Bass studied the citizens of different countries and found that in Iran, the most important factors in intimate adult relationships are education, ambition and chastity. In Nigeria, it is good health, refinement, neatness and desire for a home and children. The study found that the vast majority of marriages worldwide are arranged and that there are more similarities between heterosexual and homosexual relationships than differences. Americans want kindness, understanding, an exciting personality and intelligence.
Davis (1990)
found that men’s dating adverts sought health and attractiveness, and women’s application of make-up and drive to appear young support the idea that physical attractiveness increases mating chances
Davis and Rusbult (2001)
found that attitudes in long-term couples become aligned with time, suggesting that similarity of attitudes is an effect of attraction rather than a cause
DeMaris et al (1998)
found that women are more focused on relationships, and so are more sensitive to injustices
Depth
information that is more personal and high risk
Dickson (1995)
found teenage relationships are less serious and less effort is put into reconciliation when compared to adult relationships as there is less investment, eg no shared house, children etc.
Dion et al (1972)
used the phrase ‘what is beautiful is good’ to sum up the physically attractive stereotype and found that more physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful. The belief that good-looking people are more likely to have these characteristics makes them appear to be even more attractive and causes people to behave positively, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy
Intra-Psychic Stage
First Stage of Duck’s Phase Model of Breakdown
one partner privately perceives dissatisfaction within the relationship
Dyadic Stage
Second Stage of Duck’s Phase Model of Breakdown
partners discuss dissatisfaction and choose whether to work on their relationship or break up
Social Stage
Third Stage of Duck’s Phase Model of Breakdown
partners turn to their friends and family to reassure them they are making the right decision
Grave-Dressing Stage
Fourth Stage of Duck’s Phase Model of Breakdown
partners create their own version of events to explain the break-up to save face and protect self-esteem
Resurrection Stage
Last Stage of Duck’s Phase Model of Breakdown
added later after the model was criticised, where partners move beyond pain and distress and experience personal growth
Economic Theories
describe relationships as a series of exchanges aiming at balancing rewards and costs
Entitleds
people who are more sensitive to relationship inequality
Equity Theory
assumes that most people try to achieve fairness in their relationships and feel distress if they perceive unfairness; an equitable relationship should be one where one partner’s benefits minus their costs equals their partner’s benefits minus their costs. It is inequity in relationships that is seen as having the potential to create dissatisfaction
Profit
first principle of equity theory; rewards are maximised and costs minimised
Distribution
trade-offs and compensations are negotiated to achieve fairness in a relationship
Dissatisfaction
the greater the degree of perceived unfairness, the greater the sense of dissatisfaction
Realignments
if restoring equity is possible, maintenance will continue, with attempts to realign equity
Exchange Relationships
relationships that do involve social exchange, like work colleagues
Feingold (1988)
carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies. He found a significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners. This is especially supportive of the matching hypothesis because the studies looked at the actual partners, which is a more realistic approach
Flemlee’s Fatal Attraction Hypothesis
suggests that what initially causes attraction later becomes the cause of breakdown, for example if you are originally attracted to someone for their humour you later break up because they can’t take anything seriously
Familiarity
having more chances to interact with someone
Filter Theory
states that when choosing a partner, we start by looking at available options, however not everyone who is available is equally desirable so the pool of availability is narrowed down to a pool of desirability using filters
Social Demographics
people find this reassuring because relationships are more likely to move forward and people are more likely to meet frequently, allowing more self-disclosure
Similarity in Attitudes
people tend to view others as more attractive if they share the same core beliefs and values; this is discovered through self-disclosure, leading to greater feelings of intimacy
Complimentary
for a relationship to look long-term each partner needs to have some traits that the other partner lacks, thus helping to fulfil their needs
Fitness Indicator
anything which suggests someone has good survival skills and so would be a good partner to reproduce with
Forgiveness
moving forward from any serious transgressions
Fraley and Waller and Brennan (2000)
created a questionnaire measuring frequency of self-reported attempts to contact or approach a favourite celebrity
Gate
a feature or obstacle that could interfere with the development of a relationship
Gergen et al (1980)
found that whilst American students liked equity, whereas Europeans preferred equality
Giles (2002)
found that parasocial relationships were a fruitful source of gossip in offices
Giles and Maltby (2006)
used the Celebrity Attitude Scale developed by McCutcheon in 2002 to identify three levels of parasocial relationships
Entertainment Social
celebrities are viewed as fuel for social interaction like gossiping about someone in a workplace or school eg thinking a celebrity’s new haircut is bad
Intense-Personal
intense thoughts and feelings are felt about the celebrity, individuals like to share these thoughts with others who feel the same way eg making Facebook groups for people who like the same celebrity
Borderline Pathological
features uncontrollable and extreme behaviours, such as spending or planning to spend a large sum of money on a celebrity-related topic or being willing to perform some illegal act at the celebrities say so
Goodfriend and Agnew (2008)
argued that it is not just things we bring to relationships that could count as investment, but also plans for the future; partners will be more committed to staying together because they want to see their plans realised
Gross
found that women liked men who had a tapering figure with a waist to hip ratio of 0.85
Gruber-Balldini et al (1995)
carried out a longitudinal study of couples aged 21 and found that those who were similar in educational level and age at the start of the relationship were more likely to stay together and have a successful relationships. This demonstrates the importance of sociodemographic factors, such as age and location, supporting the idea that people are more likely to meet and build relationships with people who are geographically close and share similarities in terms of age, education
Halo Effect
demonstrates why physical attractiveness is important, because people can have preconceived ideas about the personality traits attractive people must have and these are almost universally positive, meaning that attractive people are thought of and treated differently, at least at first
Handicap Hypothesis
proposed by Zahavi in 1975, it states that whilst some traits may seem maladaptive, the fact that their has survived to reproductive age with this characteristic and is still healthy indicates great survival skills, which is a fitness indicator and so they are a good catch
Hass and Stafford (1998)
found that 57% of gay people said that open and honest disclosure was the main way they maintained and deepened committed relationships
Hatfield (1979)
looked at people who were in relationships but felt under- or over-benefitted and found that under-benefitted people felt angry, resented and deprived and those who over-benefitted felt guilty and uncomfortable, suggesting there is wider academic credibility due to this empirical support
Honogamy
you’re more likely to form a relationship with someone who is socially and culturally similar to you
