Relationships Flashcards
Absence of Gating Theory
theory by Burgh et al that virtual relationships are relatively anonymous so barriers to relationship formation are removed and gates can be hidden in virtual relationships allowing self-disclosure and intimacy to develop, avoiding distractions that might occur otherwise; when the gate is revealed, it doesn’t matter as much
Absorption-Addiction Model
developed by McCutcheon in 2003, who stated that reasons for having a parasocial relationship could be poor sense of identity, poor psychological adjustment (eg stress), lack of fulfilment in life, allowing an escape from reality to seek fulfilment -a behaviourist theory because the escapism is the reward
Absorption
the person is looking for satisfaction in celebrity worship in order to achieve a sense of fulfilment, therefore motivating them to become even more intensely attached to the celebrity
Addiction
sense of fulfilment becomes addictive, meaning the individual needs a more intense involvement to sustain commitment in the relationship, causing extreme behaviours like delusional thinking and stalking
Accommodation
putting up with minor things
Actual Equity
where contributions by each partner are equitable and fair
Akert (1998)
found that women have more desire to ‘stay friends’ after a breakup whereas men want to ‘cut their losses’ and ‘move on’ and that the partner who did not instigate the break-up tended to be more upset about it
Alternative Hypothesis
hypothesis for non-experiments eg interviews, case studies
Altman and Taylor’s Social Penetration Theory
says that self-disclosure is a gradual process of revealing your inner self to somebody else and in romantic relationship we give away our deepest thoughts and feelings in a reciprocal exchange. By revealing personal information, we are displaying trust and for the relationship to go further, the person must reveal sensitive information, thereby penetrating more deeply into each other’s lives
Anderson et al (2003)
argued, from the results of their longitudinal study, that the emotional responses of partners in long-term relationships become more alike over time rather than being similar from the start
Androcentric
male-orientated, where females are not included in studies or theories
Anisogamy
a term used by evolutionary psychologists to refer to the different behaviours that humans exhibit in order to increase their reproductive success
Anonymity
when you’re aware that other people do not know your identity, you feel less accountable for your behaviour; this can lead to someone disclosing more about themselves
Argyle (1987)
argues that we do not measure costs and rewards in a relationship, nor do we consider the effectiveness of alternatives, until we are dissatisfied with the relationship
Aronson et al (1966)
found that the matching hypothesis also applied to homosexual couples
Attraction
the most important three attributes are proximity and familiarity, similarity and physical appearance
Aumer-Ryan et al (2006)
show that the concept of equity is more important in Western cultures than non-Western cultures, where people prefer over-benefit from relationships
Baker and Bellis (1995)
found that 9% of fathers not really the biological father of their child and 29% of people in an E-poll in 2003 admitted to having an affair, suggesting that the majority of humans are not adulterous, challenging the idea of promiscuity being part of human nature
Bargh et al (1999)
Bargh et al (2002)
people are more likely to share personal information with a stranger that they will never see again, known as the Strangers on a Train Phenomenon
Benevolents
people who are less sensitive to relationship inequality
Bereczkei et al (1997)
argue that women’s participation in the workplace has had consequences for mate preferences, which may no longer be resource orientated
Berg and McQuinn (1986)
longitudinal research of 38 dating couples found that there were no real differences in equity between the couples who split up and the couples who stayed together - other variables such as self-disclosure were found to be more important to long-term happiness than equity
Bernard Murstein Study 1972
involved showing pictures of ninety-nine couples to participants, with the pictures separate, so participants could not tell who were couples. They were asked to rate each person on physical attractiveness. The scores for real couples were far similar than randomly assigned couples.
Biological Market Place Explanation
theorised by Noe and Hammestein in 1995, states that social behaviours are transactional, where different traits are traded for mutual benefit
Boom and Bust Relationships
occurs in virtual relationships, where lots of self-disclosure early on then makes it impossible to maintain to the relationship intensity because the foundation of trust isn’t there
Breadth
information covering a wide range of topics
Bruce and Young (1998)
found that both men and women like facial symmetry
Buss (1989)
study involving 10000 people from 37 widely diverse cultures and found that women desired men with financial ambition, but men are more concerned with physical attractions and mates who were younger than them, both of which are cues of fertility and reproductive value; both sexes desired intelligence, kindness and dependability, all of which are linked to the qualities needed for long-term investment in children
Buss (1995)
males can produces lots of sperm for much of their life, whereas females make a greater investment in offspring. Because of this, females choose males that are able and willing to invest in their offspring and these males achieve higher reproductive success. This led to the development the Paternal Investment Theory
Buss (2003)
theorised that women want men who invest resources in her and the children who are able to physically protect her and the children, show signs they will be a good parent and are compatible enough to ensure minimal costs to her and her children, whereas men are attracted to females who display signs of fertility
Buss and Schmitt (1993)
theorised that men lower their expectations regarding short-term mating opportunities and show a marked decrease in attraction following sex in order to bring about a hasty departure, preventing them from spending too much time with one woman
Byrne (1997)
noted that similarity in attitudes is important for the first eighteen months of a friendship, where similarity causes attraction
Catherine Cameron Study 1977
a study of personal adverts that found that women tend to promote themselves in terms of socially favoured personality and physical characteristics such as sense of humour, outgoing, slim, attractiveness, suggesting women think men look for personal attractiveness. Men tended to highlight their economic status, often using terms such as ‘professional’ and ‘homeowner’, suggesting men think women want security.
Chang (2011)
compared partner preferences over 25 years and found that some changed but others remained the same, corresponding with huge social changes in that time
Clark and Mills (2011)
argued that the theory fails to distinguish between two types of relationship: exchange relationships which do involve social exchange, and communal relationships which are characterised by the giving and receiving of rewards without keeping score of who is ahead or behind
Clarke and Hatfield (1989)
found that when asked by a stranger, 50% of women agreed to go on a date, 6% agreed to go back to his flat and 0% agreed to sex, whereas 50% of men agreed to go on a date, 69% agreed to go back to her flat and 75% agreed to sex
Cole and Leets (1999)
found that adolescents with insecure-resistant attachments were more likely to have parasocial relationships with television media personalities than those with secure and insecure-avoidant attachments, supporting the idea that those with insecure-resistant attachments are more attracted to parasocial relationships
Communal Relationships
romantic relationships characterised by the giving and receiving of rewards without keeping score of who is ahead or behind
Comparison Level
how much a person expects based on previous relationships they’ve had compared to their current relationship
Comparison Level for Alternatives
comparing how much our current relationship gives in comparison with other possible relationships that we could get into
Computer Dance Study
752 students brought welcome week tickets for a computer dance. When they brought the tickets they were told that their information would be fed into a computer and this would provide an ideal match for them, but in reality they were matched randomly. An unseen observer scored them on attractiveness. After two hours, they were asked how much they liked their partner. Those who were more attractive liked the most, which does not support the matching hypothesis, but those who matched were most likely to still be dating in six months, which does support the matching hypothesis
Cooper and Sportolari (1997)
found that the anonymity of online interactions gave web-users a sense of security and made them disclose personal information much earlier, making relationships more intense. However because the necessary trust foundation has not been established, the intensity of the relationship is impossible to sustain, leading quickly to break-up and demonstrating that breadth must come before depth, supporting Social Penetration Theory
Cunningham (1986)
found that women who displayed childlike features such as large eyes and small noses were attractive to men
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
characteristics that give a human or animal the best chance of survival and reproduction will be prized
David Buss Study 1989
David Bass studied the citizens of different countries and found that in Iran, the most important factors in intimate adult relationships are education, ambition and chastity. In Nigeria, it is good health, refinement, neatness and desire for a home and children. The study found that the vast majority of marriages worldwide are arranged and that there are more similarities between heterosexual and homosexual relationships than differences. Americans want kindness, understanding, an exciting personality and intelligence.
Davis (1990)
found that men’s dating adverts sought health and attractiveness, and women’s application of make-up and drive to appear young support the idea that physical attractiveness increases mating chances
Davis and Rusbult (2001)
found that attitudes in long-term couples become aligned with time, suggesting that similarity of attitudes is an effect of attraction rather than a cause
DeMaris et al (1998)
found that women are more focused on relationships, and so are more sensitive to injustices
Depth
information that is more personal and high risk
Dickson (1995)
found teenage relationships are less serious and less effort is put into reconciliation when compared to adult relationships as there is less investment, eg no shared house, children etc.
Dion et al (1972)
used the phrase ‘what is beautiful is good’ to sum up the physically attractive stereotype and found that more physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful. The belief that good-looking people are more likely to have these characteristics makes them appear to be even more attractive and causes people to behave positively, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy
Intra-Psychic Stage
First Stage of Duck’s Phase Model of Breakdown
one partner privately perceives dissatisfaction within the relationship
Dyadic Stage
Second Stage of Duck’s Phase Model of Breakdown
partners discuss dissatisfaction and choose whether to work on their relationship or break up
Social Stage
Third Stage of Duck’s Phase Model of Breakdown
partners turn to their friends and family to reassure them they are making the right decision
Grave-Dressing Stage
Fourth Stage of Duck’s Phase Model of Breakdown
partners create their own version of events to explain the break-up to save face and protect self-esteem
Resurrection Stage
Last Stage of Duck’s Phase Model of Breakdown
added later after the model was criticised, where partners move beyond pain and distress and experience personal growth
Economic Theories
describe relationships as a series of exchanges aiming at balancing rewards and costs
Entitleds
people who are more sensitive to relationship inequality
Equity Theory
assumes that most people try to achieve fairness in their relationships and feel distress if they perceive unfairness; an equitable relationship should be one where one partner’s benefits minus their costs equals their partner’s benefits minus their costs. It is inequity in relationships that is seen as having the potential to create dissatisfaction
Profit
first principle of equity theory; rewards are maximised and costs minimised
Distribution
trade-offs and compensations are negotiated to achieve fairness in a relationship
Dissatisfaction
the greater the degree of perceived unfairness, the greater the sense of dissatisfaction
Realignments
if restoring equity is possible, maintenance will continue, with attempts to realign equity
Exchange Relationships
relationships that do involve social exchange, like work colleagues
Experimental Hypothesis
hypothesis for experiments
Feingold (1988)
carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies. He found a significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners. This is especially supportive of the matching hypothesis because the studies looked at the actual partners, which is a more realistic approach
Flemlee’s Fatal Attraction Hypothesis
suggests that what initially causes attraction later becomes the cause of breakdown, for example if you are originally attracted to someone for their humour you later break up because they can’t take anything seriously
Familiarity
having more chances to interact with someone
Filter Theory
states that when choosing a partner, we start by looking at available options, however not everyone who is available is equally desirable so the pool of availability is narrowed down to a pool of desirability using filters
Social Demographics
people find this reassuring because relationships are more likely to move forward and people are more likely to meet frequently, allowing more self-disclosure
Similarity in Attitudes
people tend to view others as more attractive if they share the same core beliefs and values; this is discovered through self-disclosure, leading to greater feelings of intimacy
Complimentary
for a relationship to look long-term each partner needs to have some traits that the other partner lacks, thus helping to fulfil their needs
Fitness Indicator
anything which suggests someone has good survival skills and so would be a good partner to reproduce with
Forgiveness
moving forward from any serious transgressions
Fraley and Waller and Brennan (2000)
created a questionnaire measuring frequency of self-reported attempts to contact or approach a favourite celebrity
Gate
a feature or obstacle that could interfere with the development of a relationship
Gergen et al (1980)
found that whilst American students liked equity, whereas Europeans preferred equality
Giles (2002)
found that parasocial relationships were a fruitful source of gossip in offices
Giles and Maltby (2006)
used the Celebrity Attitude Scale developed by McCutcheon in 2002 to identify three levels of parasocial relationships
Entertainment Social
celebrities are viewed as fuel for social interaction like gossiping about someone in a workplace or school eg thinking a celebrity’s new haircut is bad
Intense-Personal
intense thoughts and feelings are felt about the celebrity, individuals like to share these thoughts with others who feel the same way eg making Facebook groups for people who like the same celebrity
Borderline Pathological
features uncontrollable and extreme behaviours, such as spending or planning to spend a large sum of money on a celebrity-related topic or being willing to perform some illegal act at the celebrities say so
Goodfriend and Agnew (2008)
argued that it is not just things we bring to relationships that could count as investment, but also plans for the future; partners will be more committed to staying together because they want to see their plans realised
Gross
found that women liked men who had a tapering figure with a waist to hip ratio of 0.85
Gruber-Balldini et al (1995)
carried out a longitudinal study of couples aged 21 and found that those who were similar in educational level and age at the start of the relationship were more likely to stay together and have a successful relationships. This demonstrates the importance of sociodemographic factors, such as age and location, supporting the idea that people are more likely to meet and build relationships with people who are geographically close and share similarities in terms of age, education
Halo Effect
demonstrates why physical attractiveness is important, because people can have preconceived ideas about the personality traits attractive people must have and these are almost universally positive, meaning that attractive people are thought of and treated differently, at least at first
Handicap Hypothesis
proposed by Zahavi in 1975, it states that whilst some traits may seem maladaptive, the fact that their has survived to reproductive age with this characteristic and is still healthy indicates great survival skills, which is a fitness indicator and so they are a good catch
Hass and Stafford (1998)
found that 57% of gay people said that open and honest disclosure was the main way they maintained and deepened committed relationships
Hatfield (1979)
looked at people who were in relationships but felt under- or over-benefitted and found that under-benefitted people felt angry, resented and deprived and those who over-benefitted felt guilty and uncomfortable, suggesting there is wider academic credibility due to this empirical support
Honogamy
you’re more likely to form a relationship with someone who is socially and culturally similar to you
Hussman et al (1987)
found that some people are less sensitive to inequality and some are more
Hyperpersonal Model
theory by Walther in 1996 that virtual relationships are more personal and have greater self-disclosure than face-to-face relationships because there is more time to edit and present yourself in a positive light. This means relationships develop very quickly but then end quickly because underlying trust is lacking
Impett, Beals and Peplau (2002)
a longitudinal study using a large sample of married couples over an 18 month period which found stability of relationships correlated with commitment shown by partners
Imposed Etic
a theoretical idea that is assumed to apply in all culture groups, but can be wrongly imposed on cultures where they don’t apply, leading to incorrect assumptions
Inferential Testing
statistical tests
Intersexual Selection
where males compete with each other for females in order to pass traits on
Intrasexual Selection
where females select males with more desirable traits in order to have offspring with those traits
Ismail the Bloodthirsty
an emperor of Morocco who fathered 888 children
Jerstad (2005)
found that investments were the most important predictor of whether to stay with a violent partner
Kahn et al (1980)
found that men are more likely to focus on the norm of equity whereas women are more likely to focus on the norm of equality
Kelley et al
believed that individual members of a relationship are motivated to maximise their rewards and minimise their costs; for a successful relationship, according to this model, rewards minus costs should result in a positive outcome for each individual
Kenrick et al (1996)
found that teenage males were most attracted to women who were five years older than them despite the fact that these women showed no interest in them and were clearly not easily controlled by adolescent males
Kienlan et al (1997)
found that 63% stalkers experienced a loss of primary caregivers during childhood, usually due to parental separation, and more than 50% experienced emotional, physical or sexual abuse by primary caregivers, supporting the idea that increased number of ACEs are related to extreme forms of parasocial relationships
Kurdek (1995)
investigated the importance of social exchange factors in determining relationship quality in 185 straight and gay couples who didn’t have children and found that for each couple, greater relationship satisfaction was associated with the perception of many benefits of the current relationship, seeing alternatives to the relationship as less attractive
Laurenceau et al (2005)
used a method involving writing daily diary entries and found more intimate couples disclosed more
Le and Agnew (2003)
a meta-analysis of 52 studies featuring 11000 participants from a variety of relationships that found investment theory is valid in friendships, gay marriages, cohabiting couples and different cultures
Levinger (1974)
you’re more likely to form a relationship with someone who is socially and culturally similar to you
Maintenance
keeping a relationship going
Maintenance Mechanisms
cognitive mechanisms partners use to keep relationships going
Accommodations
acting in a way that promotes relationships, rather than keeping a tally of costs and rewards
Forgiveness
willingness to forgive a partner’s mistakes, both minor and serious
Positive Illusions
being unrealistically positive about partner’s qualities
Ridiculing Alternatives
minimising the advantages of potential alternatives and viewing them in a negative light
Willingness to Sacrifice
putting a partner’s interests first
Maltby (2005)
looked at females aged 14-16 who had parasocial relationships with females whose body shape they admired and found a correlation between poor body image and parasocial relationships, and speculated that this could be a precursor to the development of anorexia
Maltby et al (2003)
used the Eysenck personality questionnaire to assess the relationships between parasocial relationship level and personality and found that people who form entertainment social relationships are most likely to be extraverts, people who form intense personal relationships are more likely to be neurotics and people who form borderline pathological relationships are more likely to be psychotic
Matching Hypothesis
suggests people tend to form relationships with partners who are a physical match to ourselves
Mate Chance
where females select males with more desirable traits in order to have offspring with those traits
Mate Competition
where males compete with other males for females in order to pass traits on
McCutcheon (2002)
theorised that the reasons for having a prasocial relationship include poor sense of identity, poor psychological adjustment, lack of fulfilment in life, escape seeking and came up with the absorption-addiction model
McCutcheon (2006)
created the celebrity attitudes scale to measure parasocial relationship intensity, found no relationship between childhood attachment patterns and mild forms of celebrity worship, suggesting it is only intense parasocial relationships that are related to attachment types
McCutcheon et al (2006)
measured attraction to celebrities, finding that adults with insecure attachment types had positive attitudes towards obsessive behaviours and stalking, and also that pathological attachment types have a tendency to stalk, implying that stalking behaviour is somewhat related to childhood attachment patterns
McKenna (2002)
described gating as removing factors that normally act as a barrier to interaction, such as level of physical attractiveness, physical anomalies, speech defects, being in a different age group or being from a different social background
McKenna and Bargh (2000)
used questionnaires to establish whether there was a correlation between being shy and internet use and found that shy people are more able to express their true selves in face-to-face situations and that 70% of online relationships last longer than two years, which is better than other relationships
McNulty et al (2008)
found evidence that the initial attractiveness that brought partners together continued to be an important feature of the relationship after the marriage, for at least several years
Mechanical Failure
where couples grow apart and can no longer live together
Mere Exposure Effect
the more often you are exposed to a stimulus, the more likely you are to positively rate the stimulus
Mikula et al (1983)
found no equity effects upon romantic relationships in Austria
Moghaddam et al (1993) (Social Exchange Theory)
argued that the emphasis on exchange is a reflection of dominant values of North America, where the theory developed
Moghaddam et al (1993) (Duck’s Model)
argued that Duck’s theory only applies to Western cultures where relationships are voluntary rather than arranged
Murstein (1972)
investigated whether or not married couples choose a partner with a similar level of attractiveness to themselves and found a positive correlation, supporting the matching hypothesis
Nanu Ram Jogi
an Indian farmer who fathered his twenty-first child at the age of ninety, whereas the oldest recorded age for childbirth is 54
Natural Selection
the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The theory of its action was first fully expounded by Charles Darwin, and it is now regarded as be the main process that brings about evolution
Neotenous
child-like features, seen as universally attractive by heterosexual males
Norman and Kenrick
found that both men and women looking for one-night stands looked for physical attractiness, because to men, it indicates fertility, and to women, it indicates good genes for their offspring
Onion Theory
the idea that some information is like the superficial layers of the onion, like likes and dislikes, some is like middle layers, like political views and social attitudes, some is like inner layers like political values, deep fears, hopes, goals, fantasies and secrets, and right in the middle is the core personality
Opportunity Loss
the cost terms in lost opportunities incurred in a relationships
Paine et al (2006)
people self-disclose more in their Facebook status updates than they are willing to in an online e-commerce web form, when they are quite reluctant to disclose information they consider to be private
Palmer and Patterson (2012)
supports the theory of a halo effect because physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people. This effect was so powerful that it persisted even when participants knew that these people had no particular expertise. These findings are significant because politicians might be judged to be more suitable for their role if they are seen as more attractive
Parasocial Relationships
relationships that are completely one-sided and lack reciprocity
Pawlowski (2008)
found that both men and women like long legs
Penton-Voak et al (1999)
found that female choice of a mate varies according to her stage in her cycle; women choose a more feminine version of a male face as most attractive for a long-term relationship but during the high conception stage preferred a more masculine shape
Pool of Availability
people who are available to be in a relationship with
Pool of Desirability
people who are desirable to be in a relationship with
Positive Illusions
being unrealistically positive about your partner
Psychological Equity
where one partner distorts their reality to convince themself that their relationship is well
Pre-Existing Doom
incompatibility and failure are guaranteed form the start of the relationship
Profit Level
based on the gains and costs of a relationship
Proximity
geographical closeness
Reciprocity
both partners exchange information so revelations are not one-sided, building trust
Reduced Cues Theory
theory by Sproull and Kiesler in 1986, states that because emotional cues are lacking in virtual relationships, this leads to deindividuation and acting in a way that they wouldn’t normally, so often virtual communication comes across as aggressive or blunt, which leads to reluctance to self-disclose
Reils and Shaver (1988)
asserts that breadth and depth are not sufficient for a relationship to develop; there must also be a reciprocal element to disclosure. This leads to a balance of self-disclosure between both partners, deepening the relationship
Appropriateness for Disclosure
those who contravene social norms will be seen as maladjusted and lacing in social skills whereas more attractive people will be sensitive to social norms
Attributions of Disclosure
less attraction occurs if an individual is seen as the kind of person who discloses personal information to everyone, or if the situation is not appropriate; more attraction occurs if we believe an individual sees us a someone they especially want to disclose information to
Gender Differences
women are generally seen as better communicators and more interested in intimate information; males may be used to this and feel threatened by females self-disclosing intimate details. Alternatively, self-disclosure by a male may be seen as very rewarding by a female, as it indicates he especially wants to disclose personal information to her
Content of Disclosure
generally, intimate disclosures are seen favourably, however, disclosure of highly intimate information may be seen as inappropriate and as violating social norms, especially if the relationship is in its early stages. This could decrease attraction, as the recipient of the information may feel threatened of unsure how to respond. Attraction is stronger when self-disclosure is moderate rather than low or high
Reproductive Behaviour
a term used by evolutionary psychologists to refer to the different behaviours that humans exhibit in order to increase their reproductive success
Rhahgan and Axsom
studied a group of women living in a refuge and found all three factors identified by Rusbult features in the women’s decisions to stay with their partners
Ridiculing Alternatives
being negative about alternatives
Robert B Zajonc
the man who, in 1968, coined the term ‘mere exposure effect’
Roberts (2007)
studied 200 undergraduates using a questionnaire developed by Fraser, Waller and Brennan, found insecure-resistant people were much more likely to report attempts to contact or approach celebrities and insecure-avoidant were much less likely to report such attempts. Secure people have low desire for parasocial relationships
Robert Sternberg Hypothesis
suggested that romantic love involved three components: passion, intimacy and commitment. Where one of these three components does not satisfy someone, the relationship often does not last.
Roland Miller (1997)
supported that dissatisfaction may come first as it was found that people in committed relationships ignore even the most attractive alternatives
Rollie and Duck (2006)
added the resurrection phase to Duck’s model, where partners move away from pain and grow, often turning their attention to new relationships; they also stated that relationships do not have to progress through stage in a linear fashion and that partners can resolve and move backwards
Rosemann and Safir (2006)
described gating as removing factors that normally act as a barrier to interaction, such as level of physical attractiveness, physical anomalies, speech defects, being in a different age group or being from a different social background
Runaway Process
over time, we see an increase in preferable traits
Rusbult’s Investment Theory
an economic theory that expands on social exchange theory by stating there are many couples who stay together despite costs outweighing rewards, so commitment is better explained through three criteria
Investment Size
anything a person puts into a relationship that they may lose if it ends
Extrinsic Investments
any resources gathered through the relationship
Intrinsic Investments
any resources put directly into the relationship
Rusbult and Marz (1995)
found that those most likely to return to an abusive partner reported making the greatest investment and having the fewest attractive alternatives
Rusbult and Zembrodt (1983)
investigated whether the 4 primary relationship decline reactions (exit, voice, loyalty and neglect) were related to Rusbult’s investment model of commitment (satisfaction, investment and viable alternatives) with self-reports on 402 undergraduates and supported investment model
Quality of Alternatives
people may leave a relationship if there are attractive alternatives, or maintain it if no alternative exists
Satisfaction Level
the impact of rewards and costs, influenced by meeting the needs of an individual
Schaffer and Keith (1980)
equity is not stable over the course of a marriage; it has peaks (the ‘honeymoon period’ in the early stages of the relationship) and troughs (for women this is particularly true during child rearing years when women underbenefit and men overbenefit)
Schmid and Klimmt (2011)
report that a tendency to develop relationships with fictional characters is not culturally specific; using an online questionnaire methodology, they found similar levels of parasocial attachment to Harry Potter in individualist and collectivist cultures
Selective Self-Presentation
phenomenon in virtual relationships, where people have more control over what to disclose and what cues to send, so can manipulate self-disclosure to promote intimacy
Self-Disclosure
the idea that relationship formation is built on trust with another person, which is demonstrated by gradually revealing personal information like thoughts, feelings and experiences that they could share with other people
Sexual Dimorphism
the difference in appearance between males and females
Sexual Selection
the view that competition for mates between individuals of the same sex affects the evolution of certain traits, summarised as ‘survival of the sexiest’
Sexy Sons Hypothesis
proposed by Charles Darwin, states that if a male characteristic enhances reproductive success it becomes established as a preference among females so males become under pressure to improve on that characteristic
Shackelford and Larsen (1997)
found that people with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive, which is an honest signal that might imply genetic fitness
Singh (2002)
found that body shape was important to men who though the most attractive waist to hip ratio for women was 0.7 because it implies a woman is fertile but not currently pregnant, however cross-cultural replications show this is not universal, although Singh defends this by saying waist to hip ratio is used as a filter to screen out less fertile or healthy mates, then fave and body weight are used, which may vary between cultures
Social Exchange Theory
describes relationships as a series of exchanges aiming at maximising rewards and minimising costs
Sampling
first stage of relationships where people explore potential rewards and costs of relationships, not just romantic ones, either by direct experience or by observing others
Bargaining
second stage of relationships; at this stage, partners exchange rewards and costs, figure out the most profitable exchanges and negotiate the dynamics of the relationship
Commitment
third stage of relationships; stage when relationships become more stable and partners become familiar with sources of rewards and costs, and each other’s expectations, so rewards increase and costs lessen
Institutionalisation
last stage of relationships; stage where interactions, including profit and losses, are established and the couple have settled down, so things have become routine
Social Identity Theory
formed in 1979 by psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner which argues that our response to joining groups involves three stages
Social Categorisation
putting people into categories, becoming shorthand for implying things about that person
Social Identification
as soon as someone is identified as belonging to one group rather than another, we take up that identity in people’s eyes and our own ,and this also holds emotional or value significance
Social Comparison
as members of a group, we then compare ourselves to members of that group and compare our group with others. In the process, we define our group in positive terms, thereby reinforcing our own positive view of ourselves. There is also a competitive element in our response to other groups. Out-groups are seen as negative terms and perhaps even actively discriminated against. Thinking well of ourselves and bolstering self-esteem therefore becomes linked with discrimination against, and hostility towards, other groups.
Social Penetration Theory
uses the onion theory to describe how people disclose; as trust increases depth and breadth of disclosure increases
Sociodemographic Characteristics
things like physical proximity, social class, level of education, religion and other factors
Sprecher (1992)
found that women tend to be more disturbed when under-benefitting from relationships and feel more guilty from over benefitting
Sprecher and Henrick (2004)
studied heterosexual dating couples and found strong correlations between both partner’s satisfaction and self-disclosure
Sproull and Kiesler (1986)
states that because emotional cues are lacking in virtual relationships, this leads to deindividuation and acting in a way that they wouldn’t normally, so often virtual communication comes across as aggressive or blunt, which leads to reluctance to self-disclose, leading to the Reduced Cues Theory
Stafford and Canary (2006)
studied over 200 married couples who completed questionnaires about relationship equity, satisfaction and the ways they maintained relationships, found that partners who perceived their relationships as fair experienced the most satisfaction
Steven Duck Hypothesis
claimed that seeing the world in the same way as someone else makes it easier to interact with them, as it increases confidence in our own attitudes which increases self-esteem. This applies to both friendships and intimate relationships
Stafford and Canary (2006)
asked over 200 couples to complete measures of equity and satisfaction and their findings supported equity theory
Strangers on a Train Phenomenon
discovered by Bargh et al, where people are more likely to share personal information with a stranger that they will never see again
Sudden Death
discovery of infidelity or a traumatic incident
Swami and Furnham Study
a study to question whether there are physical characteristicsc which are found to attractive across cultures, focusing on the heterosexual male perspective. It is also questioned whether these favoured characteristics signal procreative potential as predicted by psychologists taking an evolutionary approach to explaining behaviour. Across cultures, a waist hip ration of 0.7 has been seen as the ideal size since Ancient Greek times, and this is the ideal for childbearing. However, body weight is seen as more important than WHR, with people in economically developed societies preferring women with a lighter build as opposed to men in developing countries preferring women with a heavier build
Survival of the Fittest
the continued existence of organisms which are best adapted to their environment, with the extinction of others, as a concept in the Darwinian theory of evolution
Tang et al (2013)
found that men and women in the USA tended to disclosure more sexual thoughts and feelings than romantic partners in China, however relationship satisfaction was high in both, making social penetration theory culturally bias
Tashiro and Frazier (2003)
stated that most evidence for Duck’s model is given after a relationship is ended, meaning it relies on how partners remember the breakdown and may be tinted by social desirability bias. Researchers are reluctant to get involved at earlier stages for fear they may influence participants’ feelings or actions
Taylor et al (2011)
studied the activity logs of a popular online dating site. They found that online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were more physically attractive than them
Thibault and Kelley (1959)
came up with social exchange theory, which suggests that in relationships we try to minimise losses and maximise rewards, making judgements based on what we think the profit level is
Towhey (1979)
asked male and female participants to rate how much they liked a target individual based on their photograph and some biographical information after completing a MACHO questionnaire to measure sexual attitudes and behaviours. They found that participants who scored higher on MACHO were more influenced by physical attractiveness
Trivers’s Paternal Investment Theory (1972)
because females invest considerably more in offspring than males, males compete amongst themselves to mate with as many females as possible whereas women will be more discriminating because the consequences of mating with an unsuitable partner are greater
Utne et al (1984)
used self-report scales to measure equity and satisfaction in recently 59 recently married couples aged between 16 and 45 who had been together for 2 years or more before marrying, found that partners who rated their relationships as equitable were more satisfied with them
Valentina Vassilyeva
a peasant from Shuya, Russia, who, with her husband, Feodor, had 69 children from 27 pregnancies
Van Yperen and Buunk (1990)
found that equity has an effect on satisfaction and not vice versa
Walster et al (1966)
randomly paired 752 1st year Minnesota students into “blind-date” couples for a university dance after each student had completed questionnaires measuring their various qualities. Their physical attractiveness was assessed on entry to the dance. This study disproved the matching hypothesis because the only factor participants were interested in was physical attractiveness
Walther (1995)
stated that the reduced cues theory is wrong to suggest that non-verbal cues are entirely missing from online communication, merely are different
Walther (1996)
theorised that virtual relationships are more personal and have greater self-disclosure than face-to-face relationships because there is more time to edit and present yourself in a positive light. This means relationships develop very quickly but then end quickly because underlying trust is lacking, leading to the hyperpersonal model
Walther (2011)
argues that any theory seeking to explain virtual relationships, including the role of self-disclosure, needs to accommodate the fact that our relationships are generally conducted online and offline through many different types of media, and that what we choose to disclose in our online relationships will inevitably be influenced by our offline interactions and vice versa
Walther and Tidwell (1995)
say that people in online interactions use other cues, such as style and timing of their messages
Waynforth (2005)
found that women find strong jaw line and ridged eyebrows attractive in men
Waynforth and Dunbar (1995)
studied lonely hearts in American newspapers and found that women offered physical attractiveness and indicators of youth whereas men offered resources and sought youth and attractiveness
Wheeler and Kim (1997)
found that Korean and American students judged physically attractive people to be more trustworthy, concerned with other people, mature and friendly
Whitty and Joinson (2009)
supported that the hyperpersonal model predicts that people are motivated to self-disclose either in hyperhonest or hyperdishonest ways and found that when researching a number of online discussions, questions tended to be very direct, probing and intimate, but would never be asked face-to-face as it would be seen as going too far, and also found that people had no issue in answering personal questions
Willingness to Sacrifice
putting your partner’s interests first
Winch (1957)
found that similarity of interests, attitudes and personality traits were very important for couples in the beginning of relationships, and complementarity of needs had more impact on long-term relationships and the importance of sociodemographic factors, similarity of attitudes and complementarity in developing attraction is something that many people experience in their everyday life, meaning that filter theory has face validity – as people can relate to it with intuitive ‘this makes sense’ understanding
Yum and Hara (2005)
found American participants reported greater self-disclosure in virtual relationships was associated with more trust, Koreans associated it with less trust and Japanese participants didn’t care
