Rabbit, Rodent and Ferret Medicine Flashcards
1
Q
How are injections given to hamsters?
A
- Small muscle mass so do not use IM
- Fast metabolic rate
- SC as rapid as IM
- Large scruff so can inject a large amount of solution at once
- Can do intraperitoneal but have luminous GI tracts so is not risky
2
Q
What are the main features of normal anatomy in Syrian hamsters?
A
- Large testes, inguinal canal stays open
- Dorsal sebaceous scent glands especially prominent in (older) males
- Teeth – lower incisors 3 x longer than upper
3
Q
How do hamsters hibernate?
A
Hibernation at environmental temps of 5°C or less
4
Q
What are clinical signs the result of in demodicosis in hamsters?
A
Concurrent disease, immunosuppression, ageing
5
Q
What are the clinical signs of demodicosis in hamsters?
A
Alopecia, dry scaly skin dorsal thorax and lumbar area
6
Q
How is demodicosis in hamsters diagnosed?
A
Skin scrapes and symptoms
7
Q
How is demodicosis in hamsters treated?
A
Amitraz topically
Ivermectin injections - may not be as effective
8
Q
What are the clinical signs of Cushing’s disease in hamsters?
A
Bilateral and symmetrical alopecia
PUPD
Thin skin
Hyperpigmented skin
Polyphagia
Hepatomegaly
Behavioural changes
9
Q
How is Cushing’s disease diagnosed in hamsters?
A
Elevated serum cortisol and serum alkaline phosphate may be present but can also be elevated with stress
10
Q
What is old age a differential diagnosis for in hamsters?
A
Alopecia
11
Q
What are the clinical signs of mycosis fungoides/cutaneous epitheliotropic lymphoma in hamsters?
A
- Progressive patchy alopecia, scaly flaky skin
- Causes plaques and nodules, ulceration, crusting, scabs with/without secondary bacterial infection and demodicosis
- Lethargy and weight loss
- Very painful
12
Q
How is mycosis fungoides/cutaneous epitheliotropic lymphoma diagnosed in hamsters?
A
Biopsy/cytological examination of FNA
13
Q
How is mycosis fungoides/cutaneous epitheliotropic lymphoma treated in hamsters?
A
Euthanasia - progressive and poor prognosis
14
Q
What is the usual aetiology of incisor malocclusion causing overgrowth in hamsters?
A
Usually from gnawing at bars
15
Q
How is incisor malocclusion causing overgrowth treated in hamsters?
A
Trim with dental burr
Will need doing frequently – potentially every couple of weeks and will require quick sedative each time
16
Q
What might cheek pouch impaction be secondary to in hamsters?
A
Malocclusion
17
Q
How are cheek pouch impactions in hamsters treated?
A
- GA, gently evert cheek pouches
- Remove impaction
- Flush with warm water
18
Q
What are the clinical signs of enteritis/proliferative ileitis/wet tail in hamsters?
A
Lethargy
Anorexia
Dehydration
Weight loss
Abdominal pain
Watery, foul-smelling diarrhoea
Distended bowel loops on palpation
With/without rectal prolapse/intussusception
Death common in 24 – 48 hours
19
Q
What is the cause of enteritis/’wet tail’/proliferative ileitis in hamsters?
A
Lawsonia intracellularis
20
Q
How is enteritis/’wet tail’/proliferative ileitis treated in hamsters?
A
Warmth, fluids, probiotics, syringe feeding, antibiotics ideally based on culture and sensitivity is necessary
Correct management and eliminate stress
21
Q
Name 2 other bacterial enteritis diseases that affect hamsters.
A
Non-infectious intestinal dysbiosis (unrelated to antibiotic use)
Antibiotic-associated colitis
22
Q
What are the clinical signs of bacterial enteritis in hamsters?
A
Diarrhoea
Dehydration
Weight loss
If not associated with antibiotic usage may feel enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes
Abdominal pain
23
Q
How is bacterial enteritis treated in hamsters?
A
- Aggressive fluid therapy most important
- Probiotics/transfaunation
- Eliminate inciting cause if possible
- Antibiotics based on culture and sensitivity if necessary
24
Q
What is the normal female reproductive cycle in hamsters?
A
4 day oestrous cycle with copious white discharge with distinctive odour at end of cycle, owners may think this is pus. If necessary you can examine this under a microscope, if there are lots of neutrophils it is more likely to be pus.
25
What are the clinical signs of pyometra in hamsters?
Smelly discharge can be hard to distinguish from normal female oestrous
Can usually feel enlarged uterus/ultrasound
26
How are hamster pyometras treated?
Ovariohysterectomy, some owners will choose this
27
How are injections given to rats and mice?
- Small muscles mass
- Fast metabolic rate
- SC as rapid as IM
- Large scruff
28
How is blood sampling done in rats and mice?
Blood sampling from lateral rat tail vein under GA. Need to go midline and near to the tail base on the lateral surface of the tail.
29
What are the signs of ill health in rats and mice?
Overflow of red tears – harderian gland secretion containing porphyrin from the back of the eye in rats. This is a very non-specific sign and can occur with acute stress.
Hunched posture, stary coat – sick mouse
30
What is the cause of pneumonia in rats and mice?
Rats – mycoplasma pulmonis
Mice – mycoplasma pulmonis (chronic) and Sendai virus (acute)
31
What are the clinical signs of pneumonia in rats and mice?
Dyspnoea
“Rattling” respiratory sounds
Sneezing
Rhinitis
“Red tears”
Sick rodent posture
Weight loss
32
How is pneumonia diagnosed in rats and mice?
- Clinical signs
- Response to treatment
- Deep nasal swab if rhinitis present
- Tracheal lavage in rats
- Radiography
- Haematology
- Serology
- Very rarely done apart from radiography which is a useful prognostic indicator
33
How is pneumonia treated in rats and mice?
Azithromycin or doxycycline
Bisolvon (bromhexine) powder in rats
Meloxicam
Nebulisation
34
What are the predisposing factors for rats and mice to develop pneumonia?
Check environment for high ammonia levels, dust, cigarette smoke, lack of ventilation, draughts
35
How is nebulisation done in rats and mice?
- 2-3 times daily
- Monitor as excessive fluid deposition in airways or aerosolised mucolytic drug-induced airway spasm may cause worsening of respiratory clinical signs
36
Name 3 drugs that can be used in nebulisation in rats and mice and their actions.
F10 - antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral
Enrofloxacin - antibiotic
Acetylcysteine - mucolytic
37
What is barbering?
One animal is chewing the fur of another, especially in mice
38
What are the causes of barbering in rats and mice?
Overcrowding
Lack of bedding
Lack of dietary fibre
Boredom
Dominance (dominant animal often no hair loss)
39
What are the clinical signs of fur mites in rats and mice?
Alopecia
Miliary lesions
40
How are fur mites diagnosed in rats and mice?
Skin scrapes and symptoms
41
How are fur mites treated in rats and mice?
Ivermectin orally or SC for 3 doses at 10 day intervals, change bedding after each treatment
42
What are the clinical signs of burrowing mite/notoedres muris in rats and mice?
Pruritic, warty, papular lesions with crusts and excoriations on pinnae, nose and tail
43
How are burrowing mite/notoedres muris diagnosed in rats and mice?
Symptoms, skin biopsy, response to treatment
44
How are burrowing mite/notoedres muris treated in rats and mice?
Ivermectin orally or SC for 3 doses at 10 day intervals, change bedding after each treatment
45
What is the cause of ulcerative dermatitis in rats and mice?
Often due to self-trauma (eg. mites) but can occur spontaneously especially in mice
46
How is ulcerative dermatitis diagnosed in rats and mice?
Cytology, histology culture
47
How is ulcerative dermatitis treated in rats and mice?
- Eliminate underlying cause
- Trim claws of hind feet
- Clip, bathe (diluted chlorhexidine) and dry affected skin
- Systemic appropriate antibiotics
48
What are the predisposing factors of ulcerative pododermatitis in rats and mice?
Obesity
Poor cage hygiene
Wire mesh floors
49
What are the clinical signs of ulcerative pododermatitis in rats and mice?
Erythema and thickening on footpad leads to ulcerative and secondary bacterial infection with/without osteomyelitis
50
How is ulcerative pododermatitis in rats and mice treated?
- Correct husbandry, systemic NSAIDs, topical and systemic antibiotics with/without bandages, weight management
- Severe cases may require surgical debridement
- Consider PTS
51
What are the neurological clinical signs in rats and mice?
- Head tilt, torticollis, circling, ataxia, rolling, nystagmus
- Greater incidence in rats than mice
52
What are the causes of neurological signs in mice and rats?
- Secondary to otitis interna/media
- Central brain lesion (neoplasia)
- Tyzzer’s disease/clostridium piliforme
53
How is neurological disease treated in rats and mice?
If acute, try steroids or NSAIDs with antibiotics, usually unrewarding
54
How are mammary tumours in rats and mice treated?
- Rapidly metastasise in mice – don’t operate
- Can operate in rats but recurrence common
- Mammary tissue extensive
55
How are mammary tumours in rats and mice prevented?
Spaying/ovariectomy when young
56
How are gerbils handled?
Never hold a gerbil by the tail as this can cause degloving injuries. Best to hold them cupped into your hand.
57
How are injections given to gerbils?
- Small muscle mass
- Fast metabolic rate
- SC as rapid as IM
- Large scruff
58
What are the aetiologies of nasal dermatitis in gerbils?
- Sexually mature animals housed in groups
- Stress caused by overcrowding and high humidity
- Stress hypersecretion of Harderian gland accumulation of porphyrin pigment around nares irritation, self-trauma and secondary bacterial infection
- Digging through abrasive bedding may predispose
59
How is nasal dermatitis in gerbils diagnosed?
Clinical signs, bacterial culture, cytology of impression smears
60
How is nasal dermatitis treated in gerbils?
- Correct husbandry to reduce stress
- Humidity <50%
- Provide sand bath
- Topical cleaning with antiseptic solution
- Systemic antibiotics
- Meloxicam - lower dose in gerbils
61
What is the ventral sebaceous gland in gerbils?
- Gland largest in males (androgen-dependent)
- Used for territorial marking and scent identification of pups
62
How is dermatitis of the ventral sebaceous gland in gerbils treated?
Topical/systemic antibiotics
Surgical total gland excision if no response as neoplasia common
63
How is neoplasia of the ventral sebaceous gland in gerbils treated?
Usually adenoma (raised ulcerative mass), wide surgical excision usually curative but local metastasis possible, some are carcinomas
64
What are some zoonotic diseases of small rodents?
- Leptospirosis – rats. Weil's disease associated with the adoption of a feral rat
- Salmonella - recommend PTS as treatment carriers and zoonosis
- Dermatophytosis
- Hymenolepsis nana– “dwarf tapeworm”
- Hamsters susceptible to human colds and ‘flu
65
What are the clinical signs of salmonella in small rodents?
Acute - often haemorrhagic diarrhoea, death
Chronic - diarrhoea and weight loss. Can also cause symptoms other than diarrhoea
66
How is blood sampling done in ferrets?
- Jugular or cephalic veins
- Cranial vena cava under GA
67
What is the pathogenesis of persistent oestrous in the jill?
- Hyperoestrogenism developed during oestrous if they are not mated or not stimulated to come out of oestrous
- Jill = induced ovulator (seasonal)
- Requires more stimulation than cats and rabbits
- No ovulation causes persistently high levels of oestradiol, leading to bone marrow suppression, pancytopenia and life-threatening anaemia
- Can also develop life threatening thrombocytopaenia but is it the anaemia you will see first
68
How is persistent oestrous in jills diagnosed?
History
Clinical signs
Haematology – low PCV, pancytopaenia. Best to use cephalic/saphenous vein for collection due to thrombocytopaenia
69
What are the clinical signs of persistent oestrous in the jill?
- Persistently swollen vulva
- Pale mucous membranes, nasal planum (and eyes in albinos)
- With/without SC and mucosal petechiae/ecchymoses
- With/without abdominal enlargement due to mucometra
- Generalised weakness (HL weakness)
- Alopecia, usually starting over tail base and progressing cranially
70
How is persistent oestrous in jills treated?
- Stimulate ovulation – 100IU hCG IM, repeat if necessary in 1-2 weeks
- Blood transfusion if PCV <15% - ferrets do not have blood types
- Supportive care
- Prognosis guarded to poor
- Ovariohysterectomy not recommended
71
How is persistent oestrous in jills prevented?
- Breeding pair
- Jill with vasectomised hob
- Ovariohysterectomy?
- Proligestone IM injection at start of oestrus season (Jan-March) and 2 months later if necessary
- Stimulate manually? May get pseudopregnancy following these, causing them to become territorial/aggressive
- Deslorelin/suprelorin – GnRH depot implant, give well before breeding season in Nov/Dec
72
Describe hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets.
Develop adrenocortical disease, which is hyperandrogenism and not hyperadrenocorticism/cushing’s
73
Explain pathogenesis of hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets.
- Enlargement of one/both adrenal glands due to hyperplasia/neoplasia (adenoma/adenocarcinoma)
- Elevated circulating levels of plasma androstenedione, 17α-hydroxyprogesterone and oestradiol – not cortisol
- This condition only occurs in neutered ferrets due to the lack of negative feedback once the ferret has bene neutered.
- Once the gonads have been removed, there is not longer a release of oestrogen or testosterone, so a lack of negative feedback on the hypothalamus.
- Increased GnRH acting on the pituitary, increasing the amount of pituitary hormones acting on the adrenal gland.
74
What are the clinical signs of hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets?
- Symmetrical alopecia
- Swollen vulva in neutered jills
- Recurrence of sexual behaviour after neutering in hobs
- Pruritus
- Hind limb weakness
- Mammary enlargement occasionally in females
- Concurrent symptoms in males include urinary obstruction due to peri-prostatic or peri-urethral cysts, and prostatic enlargement
75
How is hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets diagnosed?
- Clinical signs
- Serum adrenal panel specifically for ferrets – including androstenedione, oestradiol, 17a-hydroxyprogesterone
- Abdominal ultrasound – enlarged adrenals, may be able to palpate, ovarian remnant (surgery was not complete and cause similar signs), main differential diagnosis
76
How is hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets treated?
Depot GnRH-agonists but these are expensive. Owners may want to neuter instead but may risk this hyperandrogenism
77
What is the pathogenesis of pancreatic insulinomas in ferrets?
- Microadenomas/islet cell tumours (small tumours of the pancreatic beta cells)
- Produce excessive amounts of insulin leading to hypoglycaemia
78
What are the clinical signs of pancreatic insulinomas in ferrets?
- Episodic depression and lethargy
- Light incoordination and hind limb weakness
- Complete collapse and coma
- Seizures
- Salivation and pawing at mouth (nausea)
- Vocalisation
- Weight loss
- Acute signs usually seen when ferret has not eaten for a while and resolve spontaneously especially if ferret is given food
79
How are pancreatic insulinomas in ferrets diagnosed?
- Clinical signs
- Blood glucose <3.4mmol/L after withholding food for 4 hours
- Ultrasound – insulinomas usually vs small, metastasis rare
- Exploratory laparotomy
80
How are pancreatic insulinomas in ferrets surgically treated?
- Often multiple tumours, many very small
- May be difficult/impossible to remove
- So, partial pancreatectomy advised – do not remove too much (medical management of DM worse than medical management of insulinoma
81
How are pancreatic insulinomas in ferrets medically treated?
- Diazoxide (inhibits insulin release)
- Prednisolone
- Iatrogenic Cushing’s with prednisolone
82
What are the clinical signs of lymphoma in ferrets?
- Often non-specific
- Appetite loss
- Weight loss
- Peripheral lymph node enlargement
- More severe signs in juvenile ferrets – dyspnoea/coughing (pleural effusion/mediastinal mass)
83
How is lymphoma in ferrets diagnosed?
- Radiography
- Ultrasonography with/without FNA
- Full-thickness biopsy/surgical removal of enlarged peripheral lymph node for histopathology
84
How is lymphoma staged in ferrets?
- Stage 1 (1 single site): surgery
- Stage 2 (2 or more non-contiguous sites on same side of diaphragm): surgery/chemo
- Stage 3 (multiple lymphatic sites on both sides of diaphragm): chemo with/without surgery
- Stage 4 (as stage 3 plus non-lymphatic tissue/bone marrow): poor response to chemo
85
How are ferrets with lymphoma treated?
- Glucocorticoids – alternative to chemo if owner not keen
- If ferret already on glucocorticoids it will often be refractory to chemo
86
What are the characteristics of chordomas in ferrets?
- Skeletal neoplasm originating from mesoderm – derived notochord
- Locally aggressive – destroy vertebrae
- Rarely metastasize
- 91% found at tip of tail
- Also occur in cervical/thoracic spine and tail base
87
What are the clinical signs of chordomas in ferrets?
- Swelling at tail tip/tail base/along cervical/thoracic spine
- Motor dysfunction
- Loss of conscious proprioception and pain perception in hindlimbs
88
How are chordomas diagnosed in ferrets?
- Appearance
- Imaging – MRI for cervical/thoracic spine chordomas
- Immunohistochemical staining of biopsies differentiates from chondrosarcoma
89
How are chordomas treated in ferrets?
Tail tip – surgery, amputate 2 intervertebral spaces cranial to mass
Cervical/thoracic spine/tail base – surgery, decompressive surgery?/None. Poor prognosis. Pathological fractures occur as disease progresses
90
What are the clinical signs of gastrointestinal ulcers in ferrets?
- Prone to stress-induced GI ulcers with associated haemorrhage and hypermotility
- Vomiting with/without blood
- Diarrhoea with/without fresh/digested blood)
- Anorexia
91
What is the consequence of most ferrets carrying Helicobacter mustelae in the GI tract?
- Exacerbates ulceration of stomach and intestines
- Possibly involved in gastric neoplasia, inflammatory bowel disease, colitis
92
What are the parasitic causes of gastrointestinal signs in ferrets?
Coccidiosis, giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis
93
What are the other common causes of gastrointestinal signs in ferrets?
- Ingestion of foreign body
- Trichobezoar – often slow decrease in appetite and weight loss
- Neoplasia like lymphoma
94
How is gastrointestinal disease diagnosed in ferrets?
- Clinical exam
- Faecal exam – flotation/direct smear/stain
- Rectal culture
- Blood biochemistry – lipase often high in IBD and pancreatitis
- Haematology – check for anaemia, TWCC
- Serum protein electrophoresis
- Radiography with/without contrast
- Ultrasonography
- Endoscopy and biopsies
- Gastric Helicobacter mustelae PCR
- Ex lap, biopsies
95
What supportive care is used in the treatment of gastrointestinal disease in ferrets?
- Fluids – assess and correct dehydration
- Keep warm but not too hot – overheat especially >30˚C
- Provide palatable liquid feed if appropriate
- Analgesia if abdominal pain
- Buprenorphine, butorphanol with/without midazolam to enable abdominal palpation and further diagnostic tests
- Drugs to decrease gastric acid production prior to surgery/in any stressed, ill ferrets - Ranitidine, Omeprazole
96
What are the effective treatment regimes for Helicobacter mustelae in ferrets?
Amoxicillin
Metronidazole
Bismuth subsalicylate
97
How are infectious causes of gastrointestinal disease in ferrets treated?
Bacterial infections – use appropriate antibiotics as determined by sensitivity
Parasitic infections – anti-coccidial drugs, metronidazole for giardia
Viruses and cryptosporidia – no effective treatment except supportive care
98
How are non-infectious causes of gastrointestinal disease in ferrets treated?
- Foreign body – surgery, then ensure house is ferret proofed
- Trichobezoar – surgery then preventative care
- Inflammatory bowel disease (often lymphoma) – supportive care, symptomatic treatment, treatment for H. mustelae, azathioprine?
- Neoplasia – surgery, chemotherapy or supportive care
99
What are the cardiac disease affecting ferrets?
Cardiomyopathy – dilated, hypertrophic and restrictive occur
Valvular heart disease – middle-aged to older ferrets, aortic valve commonly affected
Heart worm – dirofilarial immitis, not endemic in UK, ferrets taken abroad
100
What are the clinical signs of cardiac disease in ferrets?
Dyspnoea
Tachypnoea
Lethargy
Inappetance
Weight loss
Exercise intolerance
Coughing – looks like gagging in ferrets
Ascites (“pot belly”)
Hind limb weakness
101
What is the major differential diagnosis for clinical signs of cardiac disease in ferrets?
Lymphoma
102
What are the findings on clinical examination of cardiac disease in ferrets?
- Auscultation as for cats/dogs but remember heart located more caudally
- Check mucous membrane colour, CRT
- Ascites
- Hepatomegaly
- Splenomegaly – note this is a common non-specific finding in older ferrets
103
How is cardiac disease in ferrets diagnosed?
Clinical exam
ECG
Echocardiography
Radiography – caudal position of heart, normal ferret heart more globoid than dog/cat
104
Why should you always give liquid suspensions to ferrets?
Never pill ferrets
105
How is cardiac disease in ferrets treated?
- Diuretics
- Oxygen
- Thoracocentesis if indicated
- ACE inhibitors and nitroglycerin paste – care re-doing both of these as they are sensitive to hypotensive effects
106
What does influenza virus cause in ferrets?
Causes URT disease in ferrets
Humans are primary source of infection
107
What are the clinical signs of influenza in ferrets?
Lethargy
Inappetance
Fever
Sneezing
Nasal discharge
Epiphora
Conjunctivitis
108
What uroliths do ferrets get?
- Magnesium ammonium phosphate (MAP) and struvite most common
- Cystine uroliths also occur
109
What do ear mites/otodectes cyanotis cause in ferrets?
Can cause chronic irritation can cause secondary bacterial/fungal infections
110
How are ear mites/otodectes cyanotis treated in ferrets?
Topical moxidectin/imidacloprid
Ivermectin by injection
111
How are cat and dog fleas treated in ferrets?
Topical moxidectin/imidacloprid
112
What is the cause of dermatophytosis in ferrets?
Microsporum canis
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
Young/immunosuppressed animals
113
What are the clinical signs of dermatophytosis in ferrets?
Typical non-pruritic annular lesions of alopecia, broken hair, scale
114
What other neoplasias affect ferrets?
- Mast cell tumours usually benign in ferrets
- Vaccination site fibrosarcomas have been reported
115
What are ferrets vaccinated against?
Canine distemper - whole dose of canine vaccine, not licensed. Observe for 25 mins after vaccination in case of adverse reaction (hyperaemia, hypersalivation, vomiting)
Rabies
116
What endoparasites affect ferrets?
Protozoa
Nematodes and cestodes rarely problem but moxidectin/imidacloprid should be effective for nematodes. Fenbendazole and praziquantel have been used
Heartworm
117
What are the non-specific symptoms of sick ferret syndrome?
Hind limb weakness
Lethargy/sleeping a lot
Melaena/tarry faeces
118
What are the main challenges of anaesthesia in small mammals?
- Peri anaesthetic mortality rate is high
- Prey species (apart from ferrets) so more stressed in clinic
- Stress
- Higher metabolic rates – time for intervention is shorter
- Unfamiliarity with species
119
What are the consequences of higher metabolic rates in small mammals in anaesthesia?
- Metabolism/excretion of drugs is faster
- Shorter duration of action
- Smaller glycogen reserves
- Higher O2 consumption
120
How are small mammals monitored during anaesthesia?
Baseline parameters: RR, HR, T, BP. Print off a chart of normal and constantly monitor these
121
What are the heart rate parameters of small mammals?
Ferret = 200-250
Rabbit = 150-300
Guinea pigs = 180-340
Chinchilla = 150-350
Hamster = 350-400
Rat = 200-350
Mouse = 300-500
Gerbil = 260-500
122
What are the respiratory rate parameters of small mammals?
Ferret = 33-36bpm
Rabbits = 30-60
Guinea pig = 85-90
Chinchilla = 40-80
Hamster = 34-114
Rat = 70-150
Mouse = 90-200
Gerbil = 85-160
123
What are the temperature parameters of small mammals?
Ferret = 37.8-40
Rabbit = 38.5-40
Guinea pig = 39-40
Chinchilla = 37-39.5
Hamster = 36.1-38.9
Rat = 37.7
Mouse = 37.1
Gerbil = 37.4-38.2
124
What are the blood pressure parameters of small mammals?
Ferret = 120-160mmHg
Rabbit = 70-170
Guinea pig = 90-96
Rest unknown
125
What are the pre-anaesthetic considerations of small mammals?
- Stabilise debilitated patients
- Pre-anaesthetic bloods – often not achieved in small mammals
- Blood gas analysis
- Pre-oxygenation
- Analgesia, local anaesthetics
- Emergency preparation
- Preparation - want these animals under GA for short time as possible
126
Which opiates are used in small mammal anaesthesia?
Methadone is better than butorphanol and buprenorphine for small mammals, is the go to for abdominal surgery. Butorphanol does not carry goo analgesic qualities but is used commonly for rabbit spays and castrates, buprenorphine better.
127
What is used in combination with opioids in small mammal anaesthesia?
Alpha-2 agonist – Dexmedetomidine vs medetomidine
Benzodiazepines – Midazolam, can also be used as induction agent
NDMA agonist – Ketamine, can also be used as induction agent, cannot be reversed
128
What is TDK triple IM, SC and IV in small mammal anaesthesia?
Butorphanol “Torbugesic” opiod
Medetomidine “Domitor” alpha 2
Ketamine NDMA
129
What are the issues with TDK triple in small mammal anaesthesia?
- Minimal pain relief
- Can’t reverse it
- Lasts a long time IV
- Often don’t have IV access at injection
130
What are the options for induction in small mammal anaesthesia?
- IV placement followed by pre-medications
- IM and SC administration of premeds and then injectable induction with alfaxalone or propofol – essential for rabbits
- Gaseous induction after pre-oxygenation – sevoflurane vs isoflurane, home-made chambers or face masks. Can cause stress, injuries, apnoea, hypercapnia, hypoxia and bradycardia. Do not do this with rabbits, they can get very stressed by gassing down
- Then endotracheal intubation where possible – rabbits, ferrets and others. Can do guinea pug intubation but need an endoscope to do as their mouths are too small.
131
Which anaesthetic gas is better for small mammals?
Sevo better than iso for small mammals even though more expensive
132
What are the anaesthetic considerations for ferrets?
- Can vomit
- Care with fasting
- IV access easiest in the cephalic vein
- ET intubation – same as a cat
- Often have lots of jaw tone – may need to give midazolam
133
Why should care be taken with fasting a ferret undergoing anaesthesia?
Need fasting but due to metabolic rate are prone to hypoglycaemia so not fast over night, just a few hours required, if doesn’t eat for more than 4 hours will have a big episode of hypoglycaemia
134
What are the considerations for rabbit anaesthesia?
- Care with fasting – cannot fast them, should be eating hay all of the time but make sure any pellets or veggies taken away an hour before so nothing in airway
- Can’t vomit
- Prey species – keep with companions
- IV access easiest in the marginal ear vein (not middle of ear as this is the artery) or cephalic vein
135
How is propofol or alfaxalone given in rabbits?
- Slow IV boluses of alfaxalone or propofol
- Alfaxalone licensed in rabbits (1-4mg/kg)
- Causes apnoea if give in same way as dogs/cats
- Better to give 0.05mls-0.1mls at a time, flush and then add more if needed
136
How are rabbits intubated?
- Pre-oxygenation before ETT is essential
- Lidocaine spray
- Blind intubation or guided method
137
Describe blind intubation of a rabbit?
Can listen for the breath down the ET tube (can cause laryngeal trauma) vs visualised with endoscope guided or supraglottic airway device guided or guided method
138
What is needed when placing a supraglottic airway device in rabbits?
But capnography needed for these are this dislodges in any way it will block very small trachea and will get apnoea
139
Describe guided intubation in rabbits.
- ETT threaded through urinary cat/dog catheter and use otoscope to visualise
- Lidocaine spray
- Pull tongue forward but not too much as this will cause vasovagal responses
- Position of rabbit must be so neck is stretched and head is right up
- Thread catheter down once visualised and then can thread ETT tube and pulling catheter out
- Confirm tube is in place with capnography
140
What are the risks of endotracheal intubation in rabbits?
- Can traumatise larynx
- Can push food material etc into larynx
- Overinflation injuries possible
141
How are small mammals monitored using reflexes during anaesthesia?
Ferrets often increased jaw tone. Pinching thoracic limbs is best way to measure.
142
How are small mammals positioned under anaesthesia?
Chest elevated – especially in hindgut fermenters.
On their backs will have a harder anaesthetic and guts will compress chest and can’t move chests as much.
143
What cuff size is used for blood pressure monitoring in small mammal anaesthesia?
Cuff size 40% of the circumference of the tarsus, carpus or humerus
144
Where must pulse oximeters be placed with care in small mammal anaesthesia?
Make sure do not lose limb by reducing pressure by putting needed cap in clamp or something
145
What are the post anaesthetic considerations in small mammal anaesthesia?
- Recover in oxygen in an incubator
- Danger zone is 3-4 hours after anaesthetic so support and monitor closely
- Re-unite with companion as soon as possible
- Offer food when mentation improves
- Syringe feed as soon as able to swallow
- Continue analgesia, fluid therapy
146
How is pain minimised during surgery of small mammals?
Pre-operative analgesia, LA, must continue to provide adequate analgesia post operatively to avoid self-trauma
147
Why must knots in suturing small mammals be buried well?
If anything is sticking out, rodents will chew this out
148
How are rabbit castrations done?
1. Open so must close tunic – either one cruciate or simple continuous
2. Local anaesthetic splash block
3. Tissue glue the skin closed to close rabbit scrotum as rabbit scrotal skin is so thin you will struggle to do intradermal
149
How are rodent castrates done?
1. Abdominal approach – reduces post-op infection risk, quicker, only one wound to close rather than two
2. Midline incision, just distal to umbilicus ~1cm cranial to prepuce
3. Push testicles cranially and identify fat pad. Exteriorise gently
4. Encircling ligatures before clamping
5. Fat pad closes the inguinal canal
6. Splash block
7. Intradermals to close
150
How are rabbits spays done?
1. Skin incision usually between caudal teats
2. Lift abdominal muscle and stab incision with very high tenet to avoid hindgut
3. Uterus easy to find as it is pink against a green/grey GIT
4. Have 2 very thick cervices and so need to remove both so must always do ovariohysterectomies in rabbits. Vagina fills up with urine in rabbits so oversew vagina with simple continuous
5. Splash block
6. Intradermals to close
151
How are rodents spays done?
1. Dorsal/flank approach like cat spay - can get away with just ovariectomies
2. Skin incision diagonal to align with muscle fibres, below lumbar spine and 1cm caudal and ventral to last rib
152
What are the clinical signs of urinary tract diseases in small herbivores?
Urinary staining on fur
Vocalisation when urinating
Sludge in urine
Haematuria
Straining to urinate
Polyuria
Polydipsia
Weight loss
Urinating in inappropriate places
Asymptomatic
153
What are the water intake levels of small herbivores?
Guinea pigs – 100-200ml/kg/day
Chinchillas – 45-90ml/kg/day
Degus – 20-40ml/kg/day
Rabbits – 50-150ml/kg/day
154
What aspect of the clinical examination should you start with?
Start with the heart – stress prey animals so hate being around face so start with heart
155
What is specific about rabbit urinalysis?
Rabbits have a lot of normal to varying colours of urine
156
What are the possible sites of venipuncture in rabbits?
Marginal ear vein
Cephalic vein
Jugular vein
Lateral saphenous vein
157
What are the possible sites of venipuncture in rodents?
Cranial vena cava
Lateral saphenous vein
Lateral tail vein – rats
158
Why is it that rabbit urine can vary greatly in colour and turbidity?
- Rabbits absorb a high level of dietary calcium (45-60%) and excrete the excess.
- Consequently, rabbits have a much higher (50%) serum calcium level than other mammals
- Rabbit urine is normally cloudy in appearance and contains three types of calcium-containing crystals: calcium carbonate monohydrate, anhydrous calcium carbonate, and ammonium magnesium phosphate.
159
What are the causes of sludgy bladder in small herbivores?
- Genetic
- Dehydration
- Difficulty expressing/voiding bladder (arthritis, obesity, E.Cuniculi, UTI, lack of exercise)
- Increased dietary calcium
- Poor husbandry
160
What are the clinical signs of sludgy bladder in small herbivores?
Asymptomatic
Visible sludge in urine
Straining to urinate
Incontinence
Urine scald
Pain
161
How is sludgy bladder diagnosed in small herbivores?
- Imaging – completely defines bladder borders
- Must also assess rest of urinary tract – ultrasound
- Full clinical exam – check teeth
162
How is sludgy bladder treated in small herbivores?
- Bladder flush under sedation/GA – warm saline
- IVFT, meloxicam, GAG
- Low calcium diet, exercise, weight loss, hydrate
163
What additional clinical signs may rabbits have with sludgy bladders?
Anorexia
Weight loss
Decreased stool production
GI stasis
Lethargy
Depression
Hunched posture
Bruxism
164
What are the causes of urolithiasis in small herbivores?
- Same as sludgy bladder
- Calcium carbonate (calcite) and calcium oxalate are most common
- Stress large factor in rodents
165
What are the clinical signs of urolithiasis in small herbivores?
Asymptomatic
Visible sludge in urine
Straining to urinate
Incontinence
Urine scald
Pain
166
How is urolithiasis in small herbivores diagnosed?
- Imaging
- Must assess full urinary tract
- Urinary culture/culture and histopathology of bladder wall
- Haematology and biochemistry
167
How is urolithiasis in small herbivores treated?
- Urethral stones – manual removal under GA, midazolam is key
- Cystotomy
- Nephrectomy?
168
What are the causes of kidney disease in small herbivores?
- Renal fibrosis, renal cysts, hypercalcaemia
- Lymphoma, benign embryonal nephroma,
- Hydronephrosis
- E.Cuniculi or bacterial. Pastuerella multicide and staphylococcus species
- Urolithiasis
- Toxic
- Systemic hypotension or renal hypertension
- Failure to develop of polycystic kidneys
- Hypercalcaemia
- Paraneoplastic syndrome - lymphoma, thymoma
- Systemic hypotension
169
What are the clinical signs of kidney disease in small herbivores?
PUPD, weight loss, decreased appetite, pain, lethargy
170
How is kidney disease diagnosed in small herbivores?
- Imaging
- Urinary protein:creatinine ratio, dipstick, USG
- Haematology and biochemistry
- E.Cuniculi serology
- Blood/urine cultures
171
How is kidney disease in small herbivores treated?
- Nephrectomy – must ensure other kidney functional
- Fluid therapy
- Semintra (Telmisartan – lowers blood pressure, reduces proteinuria)
- Benazepril (ACEi) if proteinuric
- Antibiotics
172
What is the pathogenesis of encephalitozoon cuniculi?
- Microsporidian parasite is zoonotic
- Mainly shed in urine, parasitic causes granulomatous interstitial nephritis
173
What are the clinical signs of encephalitozoon cuniculi?
Polyuria
Head tilts
Lameness
Ocular changes (cataracts)
Myocardial dysfunction
Granuloma formation
Weight loss
Loss of appetite
Weakness
Asymptomatic
174
How is encephalitozoon cuniculi diagnosed in small herbivores?
Serology (IgM/IgG antibody titres
Haematology and biochemistry
Urinary test
175
How is encephalitozoon cuniculi treated in small herbivores?
- Fenbendazole
- All in-contact rabbits must be tested and treated too
- Environment regularly bleached
- Meloxicam PO
176
How is encephalitozoon cuniculi disinfected against?
Bleach is the only thing that will kill this so make sure that owner is cleaning regularly with 10% solution for 10s contact time. Have 10% solution in consult room after you have seen this these cases
177
What causes cystitis in small herbivores?
Stress, especially guinea pigs
178
What are the clinical signs of cystitis in small herbivores?
Stranguria, vocalisation, haematuria
179
How is cystitis diagnosed in small herbivores?
Dipstick
USG
Full urinanlysis including culture and sensitivity
Imaging to rule out other causes
180
How is cystitis treated in small herbivores?
- Glyco-amino glycans
- Meloxicam PO
- Increased hydration
- Decrease stress – increase hides, reduce external stressors, Pet Remedy
181
What causes UTIs in small herbivores?
Urolithiasis, stress, poor husbandry. Must check for urolithiasis first
182
What are the clinical signs of UTIs in small herbivores?
Stranguria, vocalisation, haematuria
183
How are UTIs diagnosed in small herbivores?
Dipticks
USG
Full urinalysis including culture and sensitivity
Imaging to rule out other causes
184
How are UTIs treated in small herbivores?
- Glyco-amino glycans
- Meloxicam PO
- Increased hydration
- Decrease stress – increase hides, reduce external stressors, Pet Remedy
185
What are the clinical signs of uterine adenocarcinomas in small herbivores?
Palpable mass
Abdominal pain
Weight loss
Bleed from vulva/haematuria
186
How are uterine adenocarcinomas diagnosed in small herbivores?
X-ray, ultrasound, CT, need to assess for metastases, histology to confirm
187
How are uterine adenocarcinomas treated in small herbivores?
Ovariohysterectomy, must remove both cervices
188
What are the clinical signs of cystic ovaries in small herbivores?
Pain
Abdominal distension (unilateral or bilateral)
Weight loss
Loss of appetite
Asymptomatic
Changes to excretion
Barbering companions
189
How are cystic ovaries treated in small herbivores?
- Percutaneous drainage (but these can refill very quickly/over 24h)
- Ovariectomy or ovariohysterectomy
- Pain relief with meloxicam PO BID life long
- Can’t use hormonal implants like GnRH
190
What are the clinical signs of mammary neoplasia in small herbivores?
Irregularly sized, SC nodules that discharge milk or amber fluid
191
How is mammary neoplasia treated in small herbivores?
Ovariohysterectomy or mastectomy
192
How is syphillis/treponema cuniculi diagnosed and treated in small herbivores?
Serology titres
Treat with penicillin injections daily
193
What are the clinical signs of pseudopregnancies in small herbivores?
Lasts 16-17 days
Fur pulling
Nest building
Aggression
Can progress to pyometra/hydrometra
194
What are the clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment of myxamatosis in small herbivores?
Oedematous vulval swellings
Serology testing
Vaccinations available, no treatment
195
What are the possible testicular tumours and how are they treated in small herbivores?
Seminomas, Sertoli cell tumours, lymphomas, interstitial cell tumours
Treat by castration
196
How is cryptorchidism treated in small herbivores?
Should have descended by 12 weeks
Ex-lap/castrate – inguinal castration
197
How is orchitis/epidydimitis treated in small herbivores?
Bacterial (Pasteurella spp)
Antibiotics or castration
198
Describe dental anatomy of small herbivores.
- Cheek teeth for grinding long fibres of vegetation
- Hypselodont
- Dental disease more common than omnivores – myomorphs
199
What are some possible causes of poor dentition in small herbivores?
- Brachycephalic rabbits
- Trauma from injury and illness
- Metabolic deficiencies or nutritional imbalances
- Inadequate attrition or wear of the teeth - correct diet
200
What are the clinical signs of dental disease in small herbivores?
Drooling
Wet paws
Grinding teeth
Dropping food
Avoiding one aspect of the diet
Weight loss
201
How is dental disease assessed in clinical examination of small herbivores?
1. Distance exam – epiphora, obvious incisor elongation, asymmetry to the face, position of the eyes
2. Examine mouth, dewlap and forelimbs for signs of drooling
3. Other skin disease
4. Palpate the jaw for swellings, asymmetry and pain
5. Dental check
202
What is the normal angle of rabbit teeth?
10 degrees - as long as they are not growing in towards the tongue
203
Distinguish wave and step mouth in rabbits.
Wave mouth – where teeth are not all the same height, this is when mild
Step mouth - enormously different in height
204
What are the radiographic signs of acquired dental disease in small herbivores?
- Loss of a distinguishable lamina dura
- Increased periapical radiolucency
- Loss of the internal structure of the tooth
- Elongation and distortion of the tooth roots
- Penetration of the ventral mandible or elsewhere
- Loss of the normal occlusal pattern
205
How is dental disease staged in small herbivores?
Grade 1 is normal
Grade 2 is root elongation and deterioration in tooth quality
Grade 3 is acquired malocclusion
Grade 4 is cessation of tooth growth
Grade 5 is end stage changes such as abscessation, osteomyelitis and permanent calcification
206
How are incisors treated in small herbivores?
- Burring
- Never clipping
- Extractions only if pathology irreversible, will need supportive feeding
- Palliative care if tooth root issues
207
What are the goals of cheek teeth/step mouth treatment in small herbivores?
- To prevent teeth traumatising any soft tissues
- To allow for normal mastication cycle to continue
- Connot return the teeth to normal anatomy
208
How are cheek teeth/step mouth treated in small herbivores?
- Burring – avoid clipping or hand rasping
- Extractions – only remove teeth that are mobile or associated with abscessation (teeth below will elongated and teeth on the other side will be damaged). Abscesses need marsupialising
- Palliative treatment if tooth root abnormalities
209
How is dacryocystitis treated in small herbivores?
- Tear duct flushes
- NSAIDs
- Antibiotics – if corneal ulcer
- Ocular topicals? Licensed one (isoderm?) is very thick and will often make things worse in this area of the body
210
How is dacryocystitis diagnosed in small herbivores?
- Cultures and cytology from fluid aspirates
- Fluorescein stain both cornea – risk of corneal ulcers is very high with the amount of material in the eye
- CT/radiography with/without dacrocystogram
211
How do tear duct flushes treat dacryocystits in small herbivores?
- Proxymetacaine LA
- Plastic part of canula in right hand and left hand pull bottom eyelid down and forward and place canula into hole that is opened with this action
- Pulse flush
- If not flushing at all = obstruction/blocked tear duct – investigate further as to why
212
How is dental disease prevented in small herbivores?
- Supportive feeding good but won’t help to keep teeth short
- Analgesia to prevent ileus
- Appropriate diet
- Regular burring to prevent tooth root retropulsion and abscesses
213
When do rabbits moult?
Usually moult twice a year – usually spring and autumn
Females have dewlap (main fat belly under neck) from which they pull fur to line nest when pregnant/pseudo-pregnant – will also pull fur from belly, thighs and chest
214
What must be provided in guinea pig diets?
- Cannot synthesise vitamin C
- Vitamin C must be provided in the diet
- Hypovitaminosis C causes dermatological symptoms as well as systemic
- Scent gland over rump causes greasy fur
215
What are the conditions chinchillas must be kept in?
- Must have dust bath provided daily - maintain coat condition
- Avoid humidity >50-60%, a humidity over 80% will cause matted
216
Why must you be careful of how you handle chinchillas?
Fur slip is a natural defence mechanism so careful
217
What are the clinical signs of dermatological disease in small herbivores?
- Alopecia
- Scaling/crusting
- Pruritus (usually ectoparasites/environmental allergen)
- Nodules/masses
- Pyoderma/dermatitis
- Erythematous skin
- Wounds
- Thickened skin
- Depression/anorexia
- Change to fur – broken hairs, greasy coat, colour change
218
What are the dermatological specific diagnostic tests used in small herbivores?
- Hair plucks
- Skin scrapes
- Tape impressions
- Skin biopsies – histopathology, cultures (bacterial and fungal)
- Wood’s lamp fluorescence – fluoresce certain species of ringworm, some species in exotics are not illuminated
- Fine needle aspirates
219
What fungal treatments are used in small herbivores?
Topicals – F10 barrier cream, Canesten cream
Bathing – chlorhexidine, anti-fungal powders
Systemic – itraconazole, terbinafine
220
What bacterial treatments are used in small herbivores?
Topicals – F10 barrier cream, Flamazine
Bathing – chlorhexidine
Systemic – TMPS
221
What are the inflammatory treatments used in small herbivores?
- Meloxicam (PO)
- Avoid steroids
- Anti-histamines – chlorphenamine
222
What are the parasitic treatments used in small herbivores?
- Rear guard (flystrike, prevention)
- Ivermectin for all other parasite
223
What are the differential diagnoses for non-pruritic alopecia?
Cystic ovaries
Dermatophytosis
Hyperadrenocorticism
Late pregnancy
Barbering
Demodicosis
Chronic salmonellosis
Fur slip – chinchillas
224
What are the differential diagnoses for pruritic alopecia?
- Trixacarus caviae mites
- Fur mites (Chirodiscoides caviae)
- Lice (Gliricola porcelli/Gyropus ovalis)
- Demodicosis or dermatophytosis with secondary bacterial infection
225
What are the clinical signs of cheyletiella parasitovorax in rabbits?
Scurfy/white flakes on fur, hair loss on dorsum
Zoonotic, more common in immunocompromised/debilitated rabbits
226
How is cheyletiella parasitovorax Diagnosed in rabbits?
Tape strips, microscopy (very big mites)
227
How is cheyletiella parasitovorax treated in rabbits?
Ivermectin SC or topical
Treat in-contact rabbits, change bedding after each treatment
228
What are the clinical signs of psoroptes cuniculi in rabbits?
Crusting and ulceration in external ear canals
Pruritus
Head shaking
Drooping pinnae
229
How is psoroptes cuniculi treated in rabbits?
Ivermectin/selamectin, analgesia
Treat all in-contact rabbits
230
What are the causes of fly strike in rabbits?
Soiled rabbits, dental disease, lameness, PUPD, poor husbandry, obesity
231
What are clinical signs of fly strike in rabbits?
Live maggots seen, open wounds, lethargy, decreased appetite, wet fur, digging, strong smell
232
How is fly strike in rabbits treated?
Sedation/GA to remove maggots, flushing, IVFT, treat like burns patient, antibiotics, opioids, antiseptic solution, local anaesthetic
Euthanasia fair in extreme circumstances
233
Which fleas affect rabbits?
House rabbits exposed to Ctenocephalides felis
European rabbit flea – Spillopsyllus cuniculi – vector for myxomatosis
234
How are fleas treated in rabbits?
- Imidacloprid topical adulticide
- Must also treat environment
- Do not use fipronil (Frontline) – toxic to rabbits
235
What is the cause of sarcoptic mange in guinea pigs and chinchillas?
- Trixacarus caviae
-Zoonotic
- Asymptomatic carriers common
236
What causes clinicals signs to start with sarcoptic mange in guinea pigs and chinchillas?
Triggered by stress, concurrent disease, old age, vitamin C deficiency
237
What are the clinical signs of sarcoptic mange in guinea pigs and chinchillas?
Severe pruritus
Self trauma
Secondary bacterial infection
Apparent seizures
Abortion
Crusting
Erythema
Ulceration
Alopecia
238
How is pyoderma in small herbivores treated?
- Flush with warm saline
- Topicals? Often add to the moist environment
- Antibiotics and analgesia – TMPS struggles in pus
239
What are the clinical signs of treponema cunciculi in small herbivores?
Crusts, erythema, oedema, papules, vesicles, ulcers, and proliferative lesions localized to the face and perineum
240
How is treponema cuniculi diagnosed and treated in small herbivores?
Serology titres
Penicillin G weekly for 3 treatments. Treat all in-contact rabbits. Penicillin cannot be given PO in rabbits
241
What causes dermatophytosis in small herbivores?
Trichophyton mentagrophytes (UV fluorescence not helpful)
Microsporum species
242
What are the clinical signs of dermatophytosis in small herbivores?
Alopecia, scales, crusts, erythema
Immunosuppression, stress, overcrowding, poor husbandry, old/young, concurrent disease, stressful event from carrier state causes outbreak of clinical signs
243
How is dermatophytosis diagnosed in small herbivores?
Microscopy of skin scrapes, fungal culture, skin biopsy
244
How is dermatophytosis treated in small herbivores?
Itraconazole PO 6 weeks
Topical antifungal wash 2 x week until negative cultures
Disinfect environment – 1:10 bleach solution, burn
245
What are the dermatological clinical signs of hypovitaminosis C in guinea pigs?
Rough hair coat, scaling of pinnae, poor wound healing, secondary bacterial/parasitic skin infections due to immunosuppression
246
What are the endocrine dermatological diseases in guinea pigs and chinchillas?
Cystic ovarian disease
Endocrine alopecia seen during late pregnancy – non-pruritic bilateral flank alopecia. Resolves after parturition
Hyperadrenocorticism
247
What are the clinical signs of cystic ovarian disease in guinea pigs and chinchillas?
Non-pruritic symmetrical alopecia over dorsum and flanks, abdominal distension, barbering
248
How is cystic ovarian disease diagnosed and treated in guinea pigs and chinchillas?
Abdominal palpation, US/radiography
Ovariohysterectomy vs ovariectomy
249
What are the dermatological neoplasias that affect guinea pigs?
Trichofolliculomas on dorsum - benign, solitary, central pore with discharge
Adenomas, lipomas, lymphomas, fibrosarcomas, carcinomas also reported in guinea pigs
250
What are the dermatological neoplasias that affect rabbits?
Squamous cell carcinoma, lymphoma, malignant melanomas, viral related fibromas and papillomas
251
How are sebaceous cysts diagnosed in guinea pigs?
Fine needle aspirate/cyst contents easily expressed with typical appearance/ excisional biopsy for histopathology
252
How are sebaceous cysts treated in guinea pigs?
Not necessarily indicated unless becomes ulcerated/infected, then surgical excision is curative, as in dogs
253
What are the causes of barbering in chinchillas and guinea pigs?
Stress
Overcrowding
Low fibre diet
Boredom
Dermatophytes may be underlying cause
Self trauma or dominance by cage mate
254
What is a behavioural cause of dermatological disease in rabbits?
Females pluck fur during pregnancy/pseudo pregnancy, lasts 16-17 days in spring
255
How is pododermatitis treated in rabbits?
Environmental management
NSAIDs, antibiotics, radiographs/debridement in severe cases
256
What are the clinical signs of myxomatosis?
Swellings around the eyes and genitals, white ocular discharge, fever, lethargy, anorexia, skin nodules
257
How is myxomatosis treated in rabbits?
No cure, supportive therapy rarely successful. Death usually occurs within 2 weeks
258
What increases the risk of anaesthetic death in small herbivores?
Respiratory disease
259
What are the predisposing factors to respiratory disease in small herbivores?
- Inadequate ventilation, poor hygiene
- Sudden fluctuations in environmental temperature
- Stress – pregnancy, overcrowding, aggression
- House rabbits – low humidity – central heating, aerosols, cigarette smoke
- Corticosteroid administration
260
What does mouth breathing mean in small herbivores?
- Obligate nasal breathers – respiratory efficiency easily compromised
- Mouth breathing = very poor prognostic sign
261
What are the clinical signs of respiratory diseases in small herbivores?
Sneezing (serous or purulent discharge)
Nasal discharge
Pawing at nose
Open-mouth breathing
Dyspnoea
Exercise intolerance
Coughing
Wheezing
Increased abdominal effort
Weight loss
Cyanosis
Decreased appetite
Stretching neck
Nasal flaring
262
Why is evaluation of thoracic radiographs in small herbivores challenging?
- Thorax small compared to abdomen (heart seems big)
- Obese rabbits – intrathoracic/pericardial fat
- Inspiratory views difficult to obtain if not intubated
263
What on thoracic radiograph would indicate respiratory disease in small herbivores?
- Cranial lung area appears reduced – heart and thymus fill cranioventral thorax to thoracic inlet
- Metastasis from uterine adenocarcinomas
264
What is the appearance of normal thoracic radiographs in rabbits?
The cranial lung lobes are small and are obscured by a wide mediastinum, and the caudal lung lobes contain pronounced vasculature
265
What are the treatments for respiratory disease in small herbivores?
- Oxygen therapy with/without small amounts of midazolam?
- Oral antibiotics – TMPS vs enrofloxacin
- F10 nebulisation
- Meloxicam
- Antihistamines – chlorphenamine
- Mucolytics – bromhexidine (Bisolvon)
- Bronchodilators – terbutaline
- Not steroids
- Environmental management
266
Name the respiratory infectious diseases of rabbits.
Pasteurella multocida
Staphylococcus aureus
Pseudomonas species
Bordetella bronchiseptica
267
What are the clinical signs of pasteurellosis in rabbits?
URT – ‘snuffles’, rhinitis, sinusitis, conjunctivitis, white/yellow mucopurulent nasal/ocular discharge, matted fur on forelimbs, periorbital alopecia, sneezing, dacryocystitis
Otitis media/interna – head tilt, torticollis, nystagmus, ataxia
Pneumonia – depression, anorexia, pyrexia, weight loss, exercise intolerance, dyspnoea, death
Abscesses in thoracic cavity may be clinically inapparent
May be asymptomatic chronic carriers
Can spread throughout body. Rarely acute septicaemia and sudden death
268
How is pasteurellosis in rabbits diagnosed?
- Culture and sensitivity
- Imaging - turbinate atrophy, pneumonia, pulmonary abscesses, bony sclerosis and increased opacity in lumen of tympanic bullae
- Haematology – leucocytosis
- Serology
269
How is pasteurellosis in rabbits be treated?
- Can alleviate clinical signs but likely to remain a carrier
- 2-3 months TMPS, doxycyclines, fluoroquinolones?, (penicillin)
- Supportive care – NSAIDs, oxygen, fluid therapy, nutritional support, ranitidine/cisapride
- Dacryocystitis/blockage of nasolacrimal duct – repeated flushing with sterile saline
270
Which oral antibiotics are avoided in all small mammal hindgut fermenters?
PLACE - penicillin, lincomycin, ampicillin, amoxicillin clindamycin, cephalosporin, erythromycin
271
What are outbreaks of bordatella bronchiseptica associated with in guinea pigs and chinchillas?
Overcrowding, poor husbandry/diet, vitamin C deficiency
272
What are the clinical signs of bordatella bronchiseptica in guinea pigs and chinchillas?
Anorexia, ocular and nasal discharge, dyspnoea, abortion, pneumonia, death
273
How is bordatella bronchiseptica diagnosed and treated in guinea pigs and chinchillas?
Diagnosis – culture and sensitivity from deep nasal swabs if possible
Treatment – antibiotics, nebulisation, supportive care
274
What are the clinical signs of streptococcus pneumoniae in guinea pigs and rabbits?
Lethargy, anorexia, ocular and nasal discharge, dyspnoea, weight loss, death
275
How is streptococcus pneumoniae treated in guinea pigs and rabbits
Antibiotics, supportive care - vitamin C, feeding, NSAIDs, O2
276
What are the clinical signs of chlamydophila caviae in guinea pigs and chinchillas?
Mild rhinitis, conjunctivitis, abortion
277
How is chlamydophila caviae diagnosed and treated in guinea pigs and chinchillas?
Diagnosis – conjunctival scrapings for cytology, intracytoplasmic inclusions
Treatment – enrofloxacin, topical tetracyclines
278
What are the predisposing factors of infectious respiratory diseases in chinchillas?
Overcrowding, poor ventilation, high humidity, stress, temps too high/fluctuating significantly
279
What are the clinical signs of infectious respiratory disease in chinchillas?
Anorexia, depression, weight loss, poor coat condition, dyspnoea, nasal discharge/dried discharge on front legs, abdominal breathing
280
How is infectious respiratory disease diagnosed and treated in chinchillas?
Diagnosis – radiographs, US to distinguish from cardiac disease
Treatment – as for guinea pigs and rabbits but nebulisation less tolerated
281
What are the clinical signs of allergic/irritant rhinitis/bronchitis in rabbits?
Sneezing, nasal discharge/rhinitis, epiphora, conjunctivitis
282
How is allergic/irritant rhinitis/bronchitis in rabbits diagnosed?
CT scan, exclude other causes, tracheal wash, response to treatment/allergen elimination
283
How is allergic/irritant rhinitis/bronchitis in rabbits treated?
Avoid allergen, antihistamines (steroids can trigger latent Pasteurella inf), bronchodilators, nebulisation, NSAIDs
284
What affects our choice of medication, diet and surgical considerations in lagomorphs and hystricomorphs?
Need to be constantly grazing and have good peristalsis moving ingesta through the guts. We need to protect the good bacteria fermenting their ingesta
285
What are the clinical signs of gastrointestinal disease in small herbivores?
Decreased appetite/anorexia
Decreased/no faecal production
Lethargy
Pain – belly pressing, hunched posture
Change to faeces – smaller and darker, irregular shaped, diarrhoea
Reduced caecotrophy
Weight loss
Soiled around back end
Pale mucous membranes
Hypersalivation
Jaundice
286
What are the differentials for gastrointestinal disease in small herbivores?
GI obstruction
Liver lobe torsion
Foreign body ingestion
Gut dysbiosis
Endoparasites – coccidiosis, oxyurids, cryptosporidiosis
Gastric ulcers?
Viral Haemorrhagic Diarrhoea
Lack of caecotrophy
Megacolon
287
What is blood glucose good for when diagnosing gastrointestinal disease in small herbivores?
Good for rough measure of abdominal pain
288
What do different blood glucose levels indicate about gastrointestinal disease in small herbivores?
<4mmol/L = hypoglycaemia
4-8mmol/L = normal
8-15mmol/L = abdominal discomfort, could trial ileus meds at home
15-25mmol/L = hospitalise
>25mmol/L = investigate possible obstruction/LLT
289
What can CT scans be used to diagnose in gastrointestinal disease of small herbivores?
- Lack of contrast to liver lobe – liver lobe torsion
- Show obstructions in GIT
- Show GDVs
- May show underlying cause for ileus
290
What can ultrasound scans be used to diagnose in gastrointestinal disease of small herbivores?
Doppler setting shows no blood flow to liver love = LLT
Could also show intussusceptions
291
What are the causes of ileus in small herbivores?
Pain, stress, dehydration, obesity, abdominal lesions/obstructions, adhesions (post-surgery?), neoplasia. Vicious circle
292
What are the clinical signs of ileus in small herbivores?
Belly pressing, decreased appetite/faeces, lethargic, hunched, tooth grinding?
Uncomfortable abdomen on palpation and lack of borborygmi
293
What is the consequence of untreated ileus?
Guts slow down, dehydrate and become obstructed
294
What is the blood gas parameter and treatment for mild ileus?
BG < 15mmol/L
Buprenorphine
Warmed fluids
Meloxicam
Ranitidine 5mg/kg
Cisapride
Syringe feeding
295
What is the blood gas parameter and treatment for moderate ileus?
BG > 15mmol/L
As with mild but hospitalise, place IVC and IVFT
Add in maropitant
296
How are GIT obstructions managed in small herbivores?
Radiographs
Analgesia
ICFT
Repeat x-rays
If no improvement after 2hours, then ex-lap
297
What are 3 predicted sites for obstruction in small herbivores?
Ileocaecal valve, sacculus rotundus, pylorus
298
What are the clinical signs of liver lobe torsions in small herbivores?
Present like ileus, without the large stomach on x-ray
Belly pressing, decreased appetite, faeces, lethargic, hunched, very uncomfortable abdomen on palpation, pale mmbs, jaundiced
299
How are liver lobe torsions diagnosed in small herbivores?
- Blood glucose – very high
- PCV is low
- Higher liver values on biochemistry – GLDH, AST, GGT, ALT
- Radiographs
- Ultrasound or CT
300
How are liver lobe torsions treated in small herbivores?
Surgery or euthanasia
301
What is the cause of gut dysbiosis?
Bacteria within the hindguts becomes imbalanced:
- Dietary – high sugars cause overgrowth of bacteria
- Antibiotic usage
Results in change of caecal flora (and therefore caecal pH: think rumen acidosis), GI stasis, enteritis, obesity, caecotroph retention
302
What are the clinical signs of gut dysbiosis in small herbivores?
Pain, bloating, diarrhoea, decreased appetite/faecal production, history
303
How is gut dysbiosis in small herbivores treated?
Probiotics, antibiotics only if severe, supportive feeding, prokinetics, analgesia, transfaunation
304
What are the causes of caecotroph build up in small herbivores?
Arthritis, dental disease, obesity, dietary
305
How is caecotroph build up treated in small herbivores?
Weight loss
Probiotics
Gradual diet change
Analgesia
Dental treatment
306
What are the clinical signs of endoparasites in small herbivores?
Blood/mucous in diarrhoea, or normal stools, weight loss, young ill thrift
307
How are endoparasites in small herbivores treated?
Usually coccidiosis, oxyurids, cryptosporidiosis
TMPS/baycox, fenbendazole, supportive feeding
308
What are the clinical signs of megacolon in small herbivores?
Abnormally shaped faeces, abdominal pain
309
What are the treatments for megacolon in small herbivores?
Probiotics, high fibre diet, analgesia, hydration
310
How does viral haemorrhagic diarrhoea affect small herbivores?
- There are 3 strains now – only vaccinating for 2
- Only affects rabbits lethally
- Peracute, acute and chronic forms
- Diagnosis – blood test/diagnose on PM. Quarantine/vaccinate others
311
What tests might you perform if you suspect a facial abscess in a rabbit?
FNA, skull radiography, ultrasound, biopsy – problem with FNA is the pus as this is caseous in rabbits, so can get less helpful as it may not come out with anything or wall is really thick so may not yield anything. Biopsy may be more helpful, particularly for culture and sensitivity, but usually from radiograph can tell whether neoplastic or abscess
312
How does abscess appear on ultrasound in rabbits?
Pus looks almost striated and has pockets in in rabbits, mass would be more solid
313
What does gas at different points of the GIT in rabbits indicate?
Non-obstructive ileus = halo of gas around them, fluid at later stages
Stomach = outflow obstruction
GIT = gas able to move past
314
How would you treat the medical gut stasis/ileus, once you are sure there is no obs6ruction?
Fluid therapy, pain relief, prokinetics, supportive nutrition
315
What are the possible causes of intermittent haematuria in rabbits?
Cystitis, uterine adenocarcinoma, venous endometrial aneurysm (rare), normal porphyrin pigmentation, urolithiasis
316
What would the treatment be for dermatophytosis in rabbits?
Systemic antifungals, topical might lick off, dilute chlorhexidine, treat environment, malaseb shampoo but this might be quite intense for rabbits
