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CVSOH 4 > Rabbit, Rodent and Ferret Medicine > Flashcards

Rabbit, Rodent and Ferret Medicine Flashcards

1
Q

How are injections given to hamsters?

A
  • Small muscle mass so do not use IM
  • Fast metabolic rate
  • SC as rapid as IM
  • Large scruff so can inject a large amount of solution at once
  • Can do intraperitoneal but have luminous GI tracts so is not risky
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2
Q

What are the main features of normal anatomy in Syrian hamsters?

A
  • Large testes, inguinal canal stays open
  • Dorsal sebaceous scent glands especially prominent in (older) males
  • Teeth – lower incisors 3 x longer than upper
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3
Q

How do hamsters hibernate?

A

Hibernation at environmental temps of 5°C or less

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4
Q

What are clinical signs the result of in demodicosis in hamsters?

A

Concurrent disease, immunosuppression, ageing

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5
Q

What are the clinical signs of demodicosis in hamsters?

A

Alopecia, dry scaly skin dorsal thorax and lumbar area

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6
Q

How is demodicosis in hamsters diagnosed?

A

Skin scrapes and symptoms

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7
Q

How is demodicosis in hamsters treated?

A

Amitraz topically

Ivermectin injections - may not be as effective

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8
Q

What are the clinical signs of Cushing’s disease in hamsters?

A

Bilateral and symmetrical alopecia
PUPD
Thin skin
Hyperpigmented skin
Polyphagia
Hepatomegaly
Behavioural changes

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9
Q

How is Cushing’s disease diagnosed in hamsters?

A

Elevated serum cortisol and serum alkaline phosphate may be present but can also be elevated with stress

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10
Q

What is old age a differential diagnosis for in hamsters?

A

Alopecia

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11
Q

What are the clinical signs of mycosis fungoides/cutaneous epitheliotropic lymphoma in hamsters?

A
  • Progressive patchy alopecia, scaly flaky skin
  • Causes plaques and nodules, ulceration, crusting, scabs with/without secondary bacterial infection and demodicosis
  • Lethargy and weight loss
  • Very painful
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12
Q

How is mycosis fungoides/cutaneous epitheliotropic lymphoma diagnosed in hamsters?

A

Biopsy/cytological examination of FNA

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13
Q

How is mycosis fungoides/cutaneous epitheliotropic lymphoma treated in hamsters?

A

Euthanasia - progressive and poor prognosis

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14
Q

What is the usual aetiology of incisor malocclusion causing overgrowth in hamsters?

A

Usually from gnawing at bars

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15
Q

How is incisor malocclusion causing overgrowth treated in hamsters?

A

Trim with dental burr

Will need doing frequently – potentially every couple of weeks and will require quick sedative each time

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16
Q

What might cheek pouch impaction be secondary to in hamsters?

A

Malocclusion

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17
Q

How are cheek pouch impactions in hamsters treated?

A
  • GA, gently evert cheek pouches
  • Remove impaction
  • Flush with warm water
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18
Q

What are the clinical signs of enteritis/proliferative ileitis/wet tail in hamsters?

A

Lethargy
Anorexia
Dehydration
Weight loss
Abdominal pain
Watery, foul-smelling diarrhoea
Distended bowel loops on palpation
With/without rectal prolapse/intussusception
Death common in 24 – 48 hours

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19
Q

What is the cause of enteritis/’wet tail’/proliferative ileitis in hamsters?

A

Lawsonia intracellularis

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20
Q

How is enteritis/’wet tail’/proliferative ileitis treated in hamsters?

A

Warmth, fluids, probiotics, syringe feeding, antibiotics ideally based on culture and sensitivity is necessary

Correct management and eliminate stress

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21
Q

Name 2 other bacterial enteritis diseases that affect hamsters.

A

Non-infectious intestinal dysbiosis (unrelated to antibiotic use)

Antibiotic-associated colitis

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22
Q

What are the clinical signs of bacterial enteritis in hamsters?

A

Diarrhoea
Dehydration
Weight loss
If not associated with antibiotic usage may feel enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes
Abdominal pain

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23
Q

How is bacterial enteritis treated in hamsters?

A
  • Aggressive fluid therapy most important
  • Probiotics/transfaunation
  • Eliminate inciting cause if possible
  • Antibiotics based on culture and sensitivity if necessary
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24
Q

What is the normal female reproductive cycle in hamsters?

A

4 day oestrous cycle with copious white discharge with distinctive odour at end of cycle, owners may think this is pus. If necessary you can examine this under a microscope, if there are lots of neutrophils it is more likely to be pus.

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25
Q

What are the clinical signs of pyometra in hamsters?

A

Smelly discharge can be hard to distinguish from normal female oestrous

Can usually feel enlarged uterus/ultrasound

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26
Q

How are hamster pyometras treated?

A

Ovariohysterectomy, some owners will choose this

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27
Q

How are injections given to rats and mice?

A
  • Small muscles mass
  • Fast metabolic rate
  • SC as rapid as IM
  • Large scruff
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28
Q

How is blood sampling done in rats and mice?

A

Blood sampling from lateral rat tail vein under GA. Need to go midline and near to the tail base on the lateral surface of the tail.

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29
Q

What are the signs of ill health in rats and mice?

A

Overflow of red tears – harderian gland secretion containing porphyrin from the back of the eye in rats. This is a very non-specific sign and can occur with acute stress.

Hunched posture, stary coat – sick mouse

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30
Q

What is the cause of pneumonia in rats and mice?

A

Rats – mycoplasma pulmonis

Mice – mycoplasma pulmonis (chronic) and Sendai virus (acute)

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31
Q

What are the clinical signs of pneumonia in rats and mice?

A

Dyspnoea
“Rattling” respiratory sounds
Sneezing
Rhinitis
“Red tears”
Sick rodent posture
Weight loss

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32
Q

How is pneumonia diagnosed in rats and mice?

A
  • Clinical signs
  • Response to treatment
  • Deep nasal swab if rhinitis present
  • Tracheal lavage in rats
  • Radiography
  • Haematology
  • Serology
  • Very rarely done apart from radiography which is a useful prognostic indicator
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33
Q

How is pneumonia treated in rats and mice?

A

Azithromycin or doxycycline
Bisolvon (bromhexine) powder in rats
Meloxicam
Nebulisation

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34
Q

What are the predisposing factors for rats and mice to develop pneumonia?

A

Check environment for high ammonia levels, dust, cigarette smoke, lack of ventilation, draughts

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35
Q

How is nebulisation done in rats and mice?

A
  • 2-3 times daily
  • Monitor as excessive fluid deposition in airways or aerosolised mucolytic drug-induced airway spasm may cause worsening of respiratory clinical signs
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36
Q

Name 3 drugs that can be used in nebulisation in rats and mice and their actions.

A

F10 - antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral

Enrofloxacin - antibiotic

Acetylcysteine - mucolytic

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37
Q

What is barbering?

A

One animal is chewing the fur of another, especially in mice

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38
Q

What are the causes of barbering in rats and mice?

A

Overcrowding
Lack of bedding
Lack of dietary fibre
Boredom
Dominance (dominant animal often no hair loss)

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39
Q

What are the clinical signs of fur mites in rats and mice?

A

Alopecia
Miliary lesions

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40
Q

How are fur mites diagnosed in rats and mice?

A

Skin scrapes and symptoms

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41
Q

How are fur mites treated in rats and mice?

A

Ivermectin orally or SC for 3 doses at 10 day intervals, change bedding after each treatment

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42
Q

What are the clinical signs of burrowing mite/notoedres muris in rats and mice?

A

Pruritic, warty, papular lesions with crusts and excoriations on pinnae, nose and tail

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43
Q

How are burrowing mite/notoedres muris diagnosed in rats and mice?

A

Symptoms, skin biopsy, response to treatment

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44
Q

How are burrowing mite/notoedres muris treated in rats and mice?

A

Ivermectin orally or SC for 3 doses at 10 day intervals, change bedding after each treatment

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45
Q

What is the cause of ulcerative dermatitis in rats and mice?

A

Often due to self-trauma (eg. mites) but can occur spontaneously especially in mice

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46
Q

How is ulcerative dermatitis diagnosed in rats and mice?

A

Cytology, histology culture

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47
Q

How is ulcerative dermatitis treated in rats and mice?

A
  • Eliminate underlying cause
  • Trim claws of hind feet
  • Clip, bathe (diluted chlorhexidine) and dry affected skin
  • Systemic appropriate antibiotics
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48
Q

What are the predisposing factors of ulcerative pododermatitis in rats and mice?

A

Obesity
Poor cage hygiene
Wire mesh floors

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49
Q

What are the clinical signs of ulcerative pododermatitis in rats and mice?

A

Erythema and thickening on footpad leads to ulcerative and secondary bacterial infection with/without osteomyelitis

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50
Q

How is ulcerative pododermatitis in rats and mice treated?

A
  • Correct husbandry, systemic NSAIDs, topical and systemic antibiotics with/without bandages, weight management
  • Severe cases may require surgical debridement
  • Consider PTS
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51
Q

What are the neurological clinical signs in rats and mice?

A
  • Head tilt, torticollis, circling, ataxia, rolling, nystagmus
  • Greater incidence in rats than mice
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52
Q

What are the causes of neurological signs in mice and rats?

A
  • Secondary to otitis interna/media
  • Central brain lesion (neoplasia)
  • Tyzzer’s disease/clostridium piliforme
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53
Q

How is neurological disease treated in rats and mice?

A

If acute, try steroids or NSAIDs with antibiotics, usually unrewarding

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54
Q

How are mammary tumours in rats and mice treated?

A
  • Rapidly metastasise in mice – don’t operate
  • Can operate in rats but recurrence common
  • Mammary tissue extensive
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55
Q

How are mammary tumours in rats and mice prevented?

A

Spaying/ovariectomy when young

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56
Q

How are gerbils handled?

A

Never hold a gerbil by the tail as this can cause degloving injuries. Best to hold them cupped into your hand.

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57
Q

How are injections given to gerbils?

A
  • Small muscle mass
  • Fast metabolic rate
  • SC as rapid as IM
  • Large scruff
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58
Q

What are the aetiologies of nasal dermatitis in gerbils?

A
  • Sexually mature animals housed in groups
  • Stress caused by overcrowding and high humidity
  • Stress hypersecretion of Harderian gland accumulation of porphyrin pigment around nares irritation, self-trauma and secondary bacterial infection
  • Digging through abrasive bedding may predispose
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59
Q

How is nasal dermatitis in gerbils diagnosed?

A

Clinical signs, bacterial culture, cytology of impression smears

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60
Q

How is nasal dermatitis treated in gerbils?

A
  • Correct husbandry to reduce stress
  • Humidity <50%
  • Provide sand bath
  • Topical cleaning with antiseptic solution
  • Systemic antibiotics
  • Meloxicam - lower dose in gerbils
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61
Q

What is the ventral sebaceous gland in gerbils?

A
  • Gland largest in males (androgen-dependent)
  • Used for territorial marking and scent identification of pups
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62
Q

How is dermatitis of the ventral sebaceous gland in gerbils treated?

A

Topical/systemic antibiotics
Surgical total gland excision if no response as neoplasia common

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63
Q

How is neoplasia of the ventral sebaceous gland in gerbils treated?

A

Usually adenoma (raised ulcerative mass), wide surgical excision usually curative but local metastasis possible, some are carcinomas

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64
Q

What are some zoonotic diseases of small rodents?

A
  • Leptospirosis – rats. Weil’s disease associated with the adoption of a feral rat
  • Salmonella - recommend PTS as treatment carriers and zoonosis
  • Dermatophytosis
  • Hymenolepsis nana– “dwarf tapeworm”
  • Hamsters susceptible to human colds and ‘flu
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65
Q

What are the clinical signs of salmonella in small rodents?

A

Acute - often haemorrhagic diarrhoea, death

Chronic - diarrhoea and weight loss. Can also cause symptoms other than diarrhoea

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66
Q

How is blood sampling done in ferrets?

A
  • Jugular or cephalic veins
  • Cranial vena cava under GA
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67
Q

What is the pathogenesis of persistent oestrous in the jill?

A
  • Hyperoestrogenism developed during oestrous if they are not mated or not stimulated to come out of oestrous
  • Jill = induced ovulator (seasonal)
  • Requires more stimulation than cats and rabbits
  • No ovulation causes persistently high levels of oestradiol, leading to bone marrow suppression, pancytopenia and life-threatening anaemia
  • Can also develop life threatening thrombocytopaenia but is it the anaemia you will see first
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68
Q

How is persistent oestrous in jills diagnosed?

A

History

Clinical signs

Haematology – low PCV, pancytopaenia. Best to use cephalic/saphenous vein for collection due to thrombocytopaenia

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69
Q

What are the clinical signs of persistent oestrous in the jill?

A
  • Persistently swollen vulva
  • Pale mucous membranes, nasal planum (and eyes in albinos)
  • With/without SC and mucosal petechiae/ecchymoses
  • With/without abdominal enlargement due to mucometra
  • Generalised weakness (HL weakness)
  • Alopecia, usually starting over tail base and progressing cranially
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70
Q

How is persistent oestrous in jills treated?

A
  • Stimulate ovulation – 100IU hCG IM, repeat if necessary in 1-2 weeks
  • Blood transfusion if PCV <15% - ferrets do not have blood types
  • Supportive care
  • Prognosis guarded to poor
  • Ovariohysterectomy not recommended
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71
Q

How is persistent oestrous in jills prevented?

A
  • Breeding pair
  • Jill with vasectomised hob
  • Ovariohysterectomy?
  • Proligestone IM injection at start of oestrus season (Jan-March) and 2 months later if necessary
  • Stimulate manually? May get pseudopregnancy following these, causing them to become territorial/aggressive
  • Deslorelin/suprelorin – GnRH depot implant, give well before breeding season in Nov/Dec
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72
Q

Describe hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets.

A

Develop adrenocortical disease, which is hyperandrogenism and not hyperadrenocorticism/cushing’s

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73
Q

Explain pathogenesis of hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets.

A
  • Enlargement of one/both adrenal glands due to hyperplasia/neoplasia (adenoma/adenocarcinoma)
  • Elevated circulating levels of plasma androstenedione, 17α-hydroxyprogesterone and oestradiol – not cortisol
  • This condition only occurs in neutered ferrets due to the lack of negative feedback once the ferret has bene neutered.
  • Once the gonads have been removed, there is not longer a release of oestrogen or testosterone, so a lack of negative feedback on the hypothalamus.
  • Increased GnRH acting on the pituitary, increasing the amount of pituitary hormones acting on the adrenal gland.
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74
Q

What are the clinical signs of hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets?

A
  • Symmetrical alopecia
  • Swollen vulva in neutered jills
  • Recurrence of sexual behaviour after neutering in hobs
  • Pruritus
  • Hind limb weakness
  • Mammary enlargement occasionally in females
  • Concurrent symptoms in males include urinary obstruction due to peri-prostatic or peri-urethral cysts, and prostatic enlargement
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75
Q

How is hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets diagnosed?

A
  • Clinical signs
  • Serum adrenal panel specifically for ferrets – including androstenedione, oestradiol, 17a-hydroxyprogesterone
  • Abdominal ultrasound – enlarged adrenals, may be able to palpate, ovarian remnant (surgery was not complete and cause similar signs), main differential diagnosis
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76
Q

How is hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets treated?

A

Depot GnRH-agonists but these are expensive. Owners may want to neuter instead but may risk this hyperandrogenism

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77
Q

What is the pathogenesis of pancreatic insulinomas in ferrets?

A
  • Microadenomas/islet cell tumours (small tumours of the pancreatic beta cells)
  • Produce excessive amounts of insulin leading to hypoglycaemia
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78
Q

What are the clinical signs of pancreatic insulinomas in ferrets?

A
  • Episodic depression and lethargy
  • Light incoordination and hind limb weakness
  • Complete collapse and coma
  • Seizures
  • Salivation and pawing at mouth (nausea)
  • Vocalisation
  • Weight loss
  • Acute signs usually seen when ferret has not eaten for a while and resolve spontaneously especially if ferret is given food
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79
Q

How are pancreatic insulinomas in ferrets diagnosed?

A
  • Clinical signs
  • Blood glucose <3.4mmol/L after withholding food for 4 hours
  • Ultrasound – insulinomas usually vs small, metastasis rare
  • Exploratory laparotomy
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80
Q

How are pancreatic insulinomas in ferrets surgically treated?

A
  • Often multiple tumours, many very small
  • May be difficult/impossible to remove
  • So, partial pancreatectomy advised – do not remove too much (medical management of DM worse than medical management of insulinoma
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81
Q

How are pancreatic insulinomas in ferrets medically treated?

A
  • Diazoxide (inhibits insulin release)
  • Prednisolone
  • Iatrogenic Cushing’s with prednisolone
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82
Q

What are the clinical signs of lymphoma in ferrets?

A
  • Often non-specific
  • Appetite loss
  • Weight loss
  • Peripheral lymph node enlargement
  • More severe signs in juvenile ferrets – dyspnoea/coughing (pleural effusion/mediastinal mass)
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83
Q

How is lymphoma in ferrets diagnosed?

A
  • Radiography
  • Ultrasonography with/without FNA
  • Full-thickness biopsy/surgical removal of enlarged peripheral lymph node for histopathology
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84
Q

How is lymphoma staged in ferrets?

A
  • Stage 1 (1 single site): surgery
  • Stage 2 (2 or more non-contiguous sites on same side of diaphragm): surgery/chemo
  • Stage 3 (multiple lymphatic sites on both sides of diaphragm): chemo with/without surgery
  • Stage 4 (as stage 3 plus non-lymphatic tissue/bone marrow): poor response to chemo
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85
Q

How are ferrets with lymphoma treated?

A
  • Glucocorticoids – alternative to chemo if owner not keen
  • If ferret already on glucocorticoids it will often be refractory to chemo
86
Q

What are the characteristics of chordomas in ferrets?

A
  • Skeletal neoplasm originating from mesoderm – derived notochord
  • Locally aggressive – destroy vertebrae
  • Rarely metastasize
  • 91% found at tip of tail
  • Also occur in cervical/thoracic spine and tail base
87
Q

What are the clinical signs of chordomas in ferrets?

A
  • Swelling at tail tip/tail base/along cervical/thoracic spine
  • Motor dysfunction
  • Loss of conscious proprioception and pain perception in hindlimbs
88
Q

How are chordomas diagnosed in ferrets?

A
  • Appearance
  • Imaging – MRI for cervical/thoracic spine chordomas
  • Immunohistochemical staining of biopsies differentiates from chondrosarcoma
89
Q

How are chordomas treated in ferrets?

A

Tail tip – surgery, amputate 2 intervertebral spaces cranial to mass

Cervical/thoracic spine/tail base – surgery, decompressive surgery?/None. Poor prognosis. Pathological fractures occur as disease progresses

90
Q

What are the clinical signs of gastrointestinal ulcers in ferrets?

A
  • Prone to stress-induced GI ulcers with associated haemorrhage and hypermotility
  • Vomiting with/without blood
  • Diarrhoea with/without fresh/digested blood)
  • Anorexia
91
Q

What is the consequence of most ferrets carrying Helicobacter mustelae in the GI tract?

A
  • Exacerbates ulceration of stomach and intestines
  • Possibly involved in gastric neoplasia, inflammatory bowel disease, colitis
92
Q

What are the parasitic causes of gastrointestinal signs in ferrets?

A

Coccidiosis, giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis

93
Q

What are the other common causes of gastrointestinal signs in ferrets?

A
  • Ingestion of foreign body
  • Trichobezoar – often slow decrease in appetite and weight loss
  • Neoplasia like lymphoma
94
Q

How is gastrointestinal disease diagnosed in ferrets?

A
  • Clinical exam
  • Faecal exam – flotation/direct smear/stain
  • Rectal culture
  • Blood biochemistry – lipase often high in IBD and pancreatitis
  • Haematology – check for anaemia, TWCC
  • Serum protein electrophoresis
  • Radiography with/without contrast
  • Ultrasonography
  • Endoscopy and biopsies
  • Gastric Helicobacter mustelae PCR
  • Ex lap, biopsies
95
Q

What supportive care is used in the treatment of gastrointestinal disease in ferrets?

A
  • Fluids – assess and correct dehydration
  • Keep warm but not too hot – overheat especially >30˚C
  • Provide palatable liquid feed if appropriate
  • Analgesia if abdominal pain
  • Buprenorphine, butorphanol with/without midazolam to enable abdominal palpation and further diagnostic tests
  • Drugs to decrease gastric acid production prior to surgery/in any stressed, ill ferrets - Ranitidine, Omeprazole
96
Q

What are the effective treatment regimes for Helicobacter mustelae in ferrets?

A

Amoxicillin
Metronidazole
Bismuth subsalicylate

97
Q

How are infectious causes of gastrointestinal disease in ferrets treated?

A

Bacterial infections – use appropriate antibiotics as determined by sensitivity

Parasitic infections – anti-coccidial drugs, metronidazole for giardia

Viruses and cryptosporidia – no effective treatment except supportive care

98
Q

How are non-infectious causes of gastrointestinal disease in ferrets treated?

A
  • Foreign body – surgery, then ensure house is ferret proofed
  • Trichobezoar – surgery then preventative care
  • Inflammatory bowel disease (often lymphoma) – supportive care, symptomatic treatment, treatment for H. mustelae, azathioprine?
  • Neoplasia – surgery, chemotherapy or supportive care
99
Q

What are the cardiac disease affecting ferrets?

A

Cardiomyopathy – dilated, hypertrophic and restrictive occur

Valvular heart disease – middle-aged to older ferrets, aortic valve commonly affected

Heart worm – dirofilarial immitis, not endemic in UK, ferrets taken abroad

100
Q

What are the clinical signs of cardiac disease in ferrets?

A

Dyspnoea
Tachypnoea
Lethargy
Inappetance
Weight loss
Exercise intolerance
Coughing – looks like gagging in ferrets
Ascites (“pot belly”)
Hind limb weakness

101
Q

What is the major differential diagnosis for clinical signs of cardiac disease in ferrets?

A

Lymphoma

102
Q

What are the findings on clinical examination of cardiac disease in ferrets?

A
  • Auscultation as for cats/dogs but remember heart located more caudally
  • Check mucous membrane colour, CRT
  • Ascites
  • Hepatomegaly
  • Splenomegaly – note this is a common non-specific finding in older ferrets
103
Q

How is cardiac disease in ferrets diagnosed?

A

Clinical exam
ECG
Echocardiography
Radiography – caudal position of heart, normal ferret heart more globoid than dog/cat

104
Q

Why should you always give liquid suspensions to ferrets?

A

Never pill ferrets

105
Q

How is cardiac disease in ferrets treated?

A
  • Diuretics
  • Oxygen
  • Thoracocentesis if indicated
  • ACE inhibitors and nitroglycerin paste – care re-doing both of these as they are sensitive to hypotensive effects
106
Q

What does influenza virus cause in ferrets?

A

Causes URT disease in ferrets
Humans are primary source of infection

107
Q

What are the clinical signs of influenza in ferrets?

A

Lethargy
Inappetance
Fever
Sneezing
Nasal discharge
Epiphora
Conjunctivitis

108
Q

What uroliths do ferrets get?

A
  • Magnesium ammonium phosphate (MAP) and struvite most common
  • Cystine uroliths also occur
109
Q

What do ear mites/otodectes cyanotis cause in ferrets?

A

Can cause chronic irritation can cause secondary bacterial/fungal infections

110
Q

How are ear mites/otodectes cyanotis treated in ferrets?

A

Topical moxidectin/imidacloprid
Ivermectin by injection

111
Q

How are cat and dog fleas treated in ferrets?

A

Topical moxidectin/imidacloprid

112
Q

What is the cause of dermatophytosis in ferrets?

A

Microsporum canis
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
Young/immunosuppressed animals

113
Q

What are the clinical signs of dermatophytosis in ferrets?

A

Typical non-pruritic annular lesions of alopecia, broken hair, scale

114
Q

What other neoplasias affect ferrets?

A
  • Mast cell tumours usually benign in ferrets
  • Vaccination site fibrosarcomas have been reported
115
Q

What are ferrets vaccinated against?

A

Canine distemper - whole dose of canine vaccine, not licensed. Observe for 25 mins after vaccination in case of adverse reaction (hyperaemia, hypersalivation, vomiting)

Rabies

116
Q

What endoparasites affect ferrets?

A

Protozoa

Nematodes and cestodes rarely problem but moxidectin/imidacloprid should be effective for nematodes. Fenbendazole and praziquantel have been used

Heartworm

117
Q

What are the non-specific symptoms of sick ferret syndrome?

A

Hind limb weakness
Lethargy/sleeping a lot
Melaena/tarry faeces

118
Q

What are the main challenges of anaesthesia in small mammals?

A
  • Peri anaesthetic mortality rate is high
  • Prey species (apart from ferrets) so more stressed in clinic
  • Stress
  • Higher metabolic rates – time for intervention is shorter
  • Unfamiliarity with species
119
Q

What are the consequences of higher metabolic rates in small mammals in anaesthesia?

A
  • Metabolism/excretion of drugs is faster
  • Shorter duration of action
  • Smaller glycogen reserves
  • Higher O2 consumption
120
Q

How are small mammals monitored during anaesthesia?

A

Baseline parameters: RR, HR, T, BP. Print off a chart of normal and constantly monitor these

121
Q

What are the heart rate parameters of small mammals?

A

Ferret = 200-250
Rabbit = 150-300
Guinea pigs = 180-340
Chinchilla = 150-350
Hamster = 350-400
Rat = 200-350
Mouse = 300-500
Gerbil = 260-500

122
Q

What are the respiratory rate parameters of small mammals?

A

Ferret = 33-36bpm
Rabbits = 30-60
Guinea pig = 85-90
Chinchilla = 40-80
Hamster = 34-114
Rat = 70-150
Mouse = 90-200
Gerbil = 85-160

123
Q

What are the temperature parameters of small mammals?

A

Ferret = 37.8-40
Rabbit = 38.5-40
Guinea pig = 39-40
Chinchilla = 37-39.5
Hamster = 36.1-38.9
Rat = 37.7
Mouse = 37.1
Gerbil = 37.4-38.2

124
Q

What are the blood pressure parameters of small mammals?

A

Ferret = 120-160mmHg
Rabbit = 70-170
Guinea pig = 90-96

Rest unknown

125
Q

What are the pre-anaesthetic considerations of small mammals?

A
  • Stabilise debilitated patients
  • Pre-anaesthetic bloods – often not achieved in small mammals
  • Blood gas analysis
  • Pre-oxygenation
  • Analgesia, local anaesthetics
  • Emergency preparation
  • Preparation - want these animals under GA for short time as possible
126
Q

Which opiates are used in small mammal anaesthesia?

A

Methadone is better than butorphanol and buprenorphine for small mammals, is the go to for abdominal surgery. Butorphanol does not carry goo analgesic qualities but is used commonly for rabbit spays and castrates, buprenorphine better.

127
Q

What is used in combination with opioids in small mammal anaesthesia?

A

Alpha-2 agonist – Dexmedetomidine vs medetomidine

Benzodiazepines – Midazolam, can also be used as induction agent

NDMA agonist – Ketamine, can also be used as induction agent, cannot be reversed

128
Q

What is TDK triple IM, SC and IV in small mammal anaesthesia?

A

Butorphanol “Torbugesic” opiod
Medetomidine “Domitor” alpha 2
Ketamine NDMA

129
Q

What are the issues with TDK triple in small mammal anaesthesia?

A
  • Minimal pain relief
  • Can’t reverse it
  • Lasts a long time IV
  • Often don’t have IV access at injection
130
Q

What are the options for induction in small mammal anaesthesia?

A
  • IV placement followed by pre-medications
  • IM and SC administration of premeds and then injectable induction with alfaxalone or propofol – essential for rabbits
  • Gaseous induction after pre-oxygenation – sevoflurane vs isoflurane, home-made chambers or face masks. Can cause stress, injuries, apnoea, hypercapnia, hypoxia and bradycardia. Do not do this with rabbits, they can get very stressed by gassing down
  • Then endotracheal intubation where possible – rabbits, ferrets and others. Can do guinea pug intubation but need an endoscope to do as their mouths are too small.
131
Q

Which anaesthetic gas is better for small mammals?

A

Sevo better than iso for small mammals even though more expensive

132
Q

What are the anaesthetic considerations for ferrets?

A
  • Can vomit
  • Care with fasting
  • IV access easiest in the cephalic vein
  • ET intubation – same as a cat
  • Often have lots of jaw tone – may need to give midazolam
133
Q

Why should care be taken with fasting a ferret undergoing anaesthesia?

A

Need fasting but due to metabolic rate are prone to hypoglycaemia so not fast over night, just a few hours required, if doesn’t eat for more than 4 hours will have a big episode of hypoglycaemia

134
Q

What are the considerations for rabbit anaesthesia?

A
  • Care with fasting – cannot fast them, should be eating hay all of the time but make sure any pellets or veggies taken away an hour before so nothing in airway
  • Can’t vomit
  • Prey species – keep with companions
  • IV access easiest in the marginal ear vein (not middle of ear as this is the artery) or cephalic vein
135
Q

How is propofol or alfaxalone given in rabbits?

A
  • Slow IV boluses of alfaxalone or propofol
  • Alfaxalone licensed in rabbits (1-4mg/kg)
  • Causes apnoea if give in same way as dogs/cats
  • Better to give 0.05mls-0.1mls at a time, flush and then add more if needed
136
Q

How are rabbits intubated?

A
  • Pre-oxygenation before ETT is essential
  • Lidocaine spray
  • Blind intubation or guided method
137
Q

Describe blind intubation of a rabbit?

A

Can listen for the breath down the ET tube (can cause laryngeal trauma) vs visualised with endoscope guided or supraglottic airway device guided or guided method

138
Q

What is needed when placing a supraglottic airway device in rabbits?

A

But capnography needed for these are this dislodges in any way it will block very small trachea and will get apnoea

139
Q

Describe guided intubation in rabbits.

A
  • ETT threaded through urinary cat/dog catheter and use otoscope to visualise
  • Lidocaine spray
  • Pull tongue forward but not too much as this will cause vasovagal responses
  • Position of rabbit must be so neck is stretched and head is right up
  • Thread catheter down once visualised and then can thread ETT tube and pulling catheter out
  • Confirm tube is in place with capnography
140
Q

What are the risks of endotracheal intubation in rabbits?

A
  • Can traumatise larynx
  • Can push food material etc into larynx
  • Overinflation injuries possible
141
Q

How are small mammals monitored using reflexes during anaesthesia?

A

Ferrets often increased jaw tone. Pinching thoracic limbs is best way to measure.

142
Q

How are small mammals positioned under anaesthesia?

A

Chest elevated – especially in hindgut fermenters.
On their backs will have a harder anaesthetic and guts will compress chest and can’t move chests as much.

143
Q

What cuff size is used for blood pressure monitoring in small mammal anaesthesia?

A

Cuff size 40% of the circumference of the tarsus, carpus or humerus

144
Q

Where must pulse oximeters be placed with care in small mammal anaesthesia?

A

Make sure do not lose limb by reducing pressure by putting needed cap in clamp or something

145
Q

What are the post anaesthetic considerations in small mammal anaesthesia?

A
  • Recover in oxygen in an incubator
  • Danger zone is 3-4 hours after anaesthetic so support and monitor closely
  • Re-unite with companion as soon as possible
  • Offer food when mentation improves
  • Syringe feed as soon as able to swallow
  • Continue analgesia, fluid therapy
146
Q

How is pain minimised during surgery of small mammals?

A

Pre-operative analgesia, LA, must continue to provide adequate analgesia post operatively to avoid self-trauma

147
Q

Why must knots in suturing small mammals be buried well?

A

If anything is sticking out, rodents will chew this out

148
Q

How are rabbit castrations done?

A
  1. Open so must close tunic – either one cruciate or simple continuous
  2. Local anaesthetic splash block
  3. Tissue glue the skin closed to close rabbit scrotum as rabbit scrotal skin is so thin you will struggle to do intradermal
149
Q

How are rodent castrates done?

A
  1. Abdominal approach – reduces post-op infection risk, quicker, only one wound to close rather than two
  2. Midline incision, just distal to umbilicus ~1cm cranial to prepuce
  3. Push testicles cranially and identify fat pad. Exteriorise gently
  4. Encircling ligatures before clamping
  5. Fat pad closes the inguinal canal
  6. Splash block
  7. Intradermals to close
150
Q

How are rabbits spays done?

A
  1. Skin incision usually between caudal teats
  2. Lift abdominal muscle and stab incision with very high tenet to avoid hindgut
  3. Uterus easy to find as it is pink against a green/grey GIT
  4. Have 2 very thick cervices and so need to remove both so must always do ovariohysterectomies in rabbits. Vagina fills up with urine in rabbits so oversew vagina with simple continuous
  5. Splash block
  6. Intradermals to close
151
Q

How are rodents spays done?

A
  1. Dorsal/flank approach like cat spay - can get away with just ovariectomies
  2. Skin incision diagonal to align with muscle fibres, below lumbar spine and 1cm caudal and ventral to last rib
152
Q

What are the clinical signs of urinary tract diseases in small herbivores?

A

Urinary staining on fur
Vocalisation when urinating
Sludge in urine
Haematuria
Straining to urinate
Polyuria
Polydipsia
Weight loss
Urinating in inappropriate places
Asymptomatic

153
Q

What are the water intake levels of small herbivores?

A

Guinea pigs – 100-200ml/kg/day
Chinchillas – 45-90ml/kg/day
Degus – 20-40ml/kg/day
Rabbits – 50-150ml/kg/day

154
Q

What aspect of the clinical examination should you start with?

A

Start with the heart – stress prey animals so hate being around face so start with heart

155
Q

What is specific about rabbit urinalysis?

A

Rabbits have a lot of normal to varying colours of urine

156
Q

What are the possible sites of venipuncture in rabbits?

A

Marginal ear vein
Cephalic vein
Jugular vein
Lateral saphenous vein

157
Q

What are the possible sites of venipuncture in rodents?

A

Cranial vena cava
Lateral saphenous vein
Lateral tail vein – rats

158
Q

Why is it that rabbit urine can vary greatly in colour and turbidity?

A
  • Rabbits absorb a high level of dietary calcium (45-60%) and excrete the excess.
  • Consequently, rabbits have a much higher (50%) serum calcium level than other mammals
  • Rabbit urine is normally cloudy in appearance and contains three types of calcium-containing crystals: calcium carbonate monohydrate, anhydrous calcium carbonate, and ammonium magnesium phosphate.
159
Q

What are the causes of sludgy bladder in small herbivores?

A
  • Genetic
  • Dehydration
  • Difficulty expressing/voiding bladder (arthritis, obesity, E.Cuniculi, UTI, lack of exercise)
  • Increased dietary calcium
  • Poor husbandry
160
Q

What are the clinical signs of sludgy bladder in small herbivores?

A

Asymptomatic
Visible sludge in urine
Straining to urinate
Incontinence
Urine scald
Pain

161
Q

How is sludgy bladder diagnosed in small herbivores?

A
  • Imaging – completely defines bladder borders
  • Must also assess rest of urinary tract – ultrasound
  • Full clinical exam – check teeth
162
Q

How is sludgy bladder treated in small herbivores?

A
  • Bladder flush under sedation/GA – warm saline
  • IVFT, meloxicam, GAG
  • Low calcium diet, exercise, weight loss, hydrate
163
Q

What additional clinical signs may rabbits have with sludgy bladders?

A

Anorexia
Weight loss
Decreased stool production
GI stasis
Lethargy
Depression
Hunched posture
Bruxism

164
Q

What are the causes of urolithiasis in small herbivores?

A
  • Same as sludgy bladder
  • Calcium carbonate (calcite) and calcium oxalate are most common
  • Stress large factor in rodents
165
Q

What are the clinical signs of urolithiasis in small herbivores?

A

Asymptomatic
Visible sludge in urine
Straining to urinate
Incontinence
Urine scald
Pain

166
Q

How is urolithiasis in small herbivores diagnosed?

A
  • Imaging
  • Must assess full urinary tract
  • Urinary culture/culture and histopathology of bladder wall
  • Haematology and biochemistry
167
Q

How is urolithiasis in small herbivores treated?

A
  • Urethral stones – manual removal under GA, midazolam is key
  • Cystotomy
  • Nephrectomy?
168
Q

What are the causes of kidney disease in small herbivores?

A
  • Renal fibrosis, renal cysts, hypercalcaemia
  • Lymphoma, benign embryonal nephroma,
  • Hydronephrosis
  • E.Cuniculi or bacterial. Pastuerella multicide and staphylococcus species
  • Urolithiasis
  • Toxic
  • Systemic hypotension or renal hypertension
  • Failure to develop of polycystic kidneys
  • Hypercalcaemia
  • Paraneoplastic syndrome - lymphoma, thymoma
  • Systemic hypotension
169
Q

What are the clinical signs of kidney disease in small herbivores?

A

PUPD, weight loss, decreased appetite, pain, lethargy

170
Q

How is kidney disease diagnosed in small herbivores?

A
  • Imaging
  • Urinary protein:creatinine ratio, dipstick, USG
  • Haematology and biochemistry
  • E.Cuniculi serology
  • Blood/urine cultures
171
Q

How is kidney disease in small herbivores treated?

A
  • Nephrectomy – must ensure other kidney functional
  • Fluid therapy
  • Semintra (Telmisartan – lowers blood pressure, reduces proteinuria)
  • Benazepril (ACEi) if proteinuric
  • Antibiotics
172
Q

What is the pathogenesis of encephalitozoon cuniculi?

A
  • Microsporidian parasite is zoonotic
  • Mainly shed in urine, parasitic causes granulomatous interstitial nephritis
173
Q

What are the clinical signs of encephalitozoon cuniculi?

A

Polyuria
Head tilts
Lameness
Ocular changes (cataracts)
Myocardial dysfunction
Granuloma formation
Weight loss
Loss of appetite
Weakness
Asymptomatic

174
Q

How is encephalitozoon cuniculi diagnosed in small herbivores?

A

Serology (IgM/IgG antibody titres
Haematology and biochemistry
Urinary test

175
Q

How is encephalitozoon cuniculi treated in small herbivores?

A
  • Fenbendazole
  • All in-contact rabbits must be tested and treated too
  • Environment regularly bleached
  • Meloxicam PO
176
Q

How is encephalitozoon cuniculi disinfected against?

A

Bleach is the only thing that will kill this so make sure that owner is cleaning regularly with 10% solution for 10s contact time. Have 10% solution in consult room after you have seen this these cases

177
Q

What causes cystitis in small herbivores?

A

Stress, especially guinea pigs

178
Q

What are the clinical signs of cystitis in small herbivores?

A

Stranguria, vocalisation, haematuria

179
Q

How is cystitis diagnosed in small herbivores?

A

Dipstick
USG
Full urinanlysis including culture and sensitivity
Imaging to rule out other causes

180
Q

How is cystitis treated in small herbivores?

A
  • Glyco-amino glycans
  • Meloxicam PO
  • Increased hydration
  • Decrease stress – increase hides, reduce external stressors, Pet Remedy
181
Q

What causes UTIs in small herbivores?

A

Urolithiasis, stress, poor husbandry. Must check for urolithiasis first

182
Q

What are the clinical signs of UTIs in small herbivores?

A

Stranguria, vocalisation, haematuria

183
Q

How are UTIs diagnosed in small herbivores?

A

Dipticks
USG
Full urinalysis including culture and sensitivity
Imaging to rule out other causes

184
Q

How are UTIs treated in small herbivores?

A
  • Glyco-amino glycans
  • Meloxicam PO
  • Increased hydration
  • Decrease stress – increase hides, reduce external stressors, Pet Remedy
185
Q

What are the clinical signs of uterine adenocarcinomas in small herbivores?

A

Palpable mass
Abdominal pain
Weight loss
Bleed from vulva/haematuria

186
Q

How are uterine adenocarcinomas diagnosed in small herbivores?

A

X-ray, ultrasound, CT, need to assess for metastases, histology to confirm

187
Q

How are uterine adenocarcinomas treated in small herbivores?

A

Ovariohysterectomy, must remove both cervices

188
Q

What are the clinical signs of cystic ovaries in small herbivores?

A

Pain
Abdominal distension (unilateral or bilateral)
Weight loss
Loss of appetite
Asymptomatic
Changes to excretion
Barbering companions

189
Q

How are cystic ovaries treated in small herbivores?

A
  • Percutaneous drainage (but these can refill very quickly/over 24h)
  • Ovariectomy or ovariohysterectomy
  • Pain relief with meloxicam PO BID life long
  • Can’t use hormonal implants like GnRH
190
Q

What are the clinical signs of mammary neoplasia in small herbivores?

A

Irregularly sized, SC nodules that discharge milk or amber fluid

191
Q

How is mammary neoplasia treated in small herbivores?

A

Ovariohysterectomy or mastectomy

192
Q

How is syphillis/treponema cuniculi diagnosed and treated in small herbivores?

A

Serology titres
Treat with penicillin injections daily

193
Q

What are the clinical signs of pseudopregnancies in small herbivores?

A

Lasts 16-17 days
Fur pulling
Nest building
Aggression
Can progress to pyometra/hydrometra

194
Q

What are the clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment of myxamatosis in small herbivores?

A

Oedematous vulval swellings
Serology testing
Vaccinations available, no treatment

195
Q

What are the possible testicular tumours and how are they treated in small herbivores?

A

Seminomas, Sertoli cell tumours, lymphomas, interstitial cell tumours

Treat by castration

196
Q

How is cryptorchidism treated in small herbivores?

A

Should have descended by 12 weeks
Ex-lap/castrate – inguinal castration

197
Q

How is orchitis/epidydimitis treated in small herbivores?

A

Bacterial (Pasteurella spp)
Antibiotics or castration

198
Q

Describe dental anatomy of small herbivores.

A
  • Cheek teeth for grinding long fibres of vegetation
  • Hypselodont
  • Dental disease more common than omnivores – myomorphs
199
Q

What are some possible causes of poor dentition in small herbivores?

A
  • Brachycephalic rabbits
  • Trauma from injury and illness
  • Metabolic deficiencies or nutritional imbalances
  • Inadequate attrition or wear of the teeth - correct diet
200
Q

What are the clinical signs of dental disease in small herbivores?

A

Drooling
Wet paws
Grinding teeth
Dropping food
Avoiding one aspect of the diet
Weight loss

201
Q

How is dental disease assessed in clinical examination of small herbivores?

A
  1. Distance exam – epiphora, obvious incisor elongation, asymmetry to the face, position of the eyes
  2. Examine mouth, dewlap and forelimbs for signs of drooling
  3. Other skin disease
  4. Palpate the jaw for swellings, asymmetry and pain
  5. Dental check
202
Q

What is the normal angle of rabbit teeth?

A

10 degrees - as long as they are not growing in towards the tongue

203
Q

Distinguish wave and step mouth in rabbits.

A

Wave mouth – where teeth are not all the same height, this is when mild

Step mouth - enormously different in height

204
Q

What are the radiographic signs of acquired dental disease in small herbivores?

A
  • Loss of a distinguishable lamina dura
  • Increased periapical radiolucency
  • Loss of the internal structure of the tooth
  • Elongation and distortion of the tooth roots
  • Penetration of the ventral mandible or elsewhere
  • Loss of the normal occlusal pattern
205
Q

How is dental disease staged in small herbivores?

A

Grade 1 is normal

Grade 2 is root elongation and deterioration in tooth quality

Grade 3 is acquired malocclusion

Grade 4 is cessation of tooth growth

Grade 5 is end stage changes such as abscessation, osteomyelitis and permanent calcification

206
Q

How are incisors treated in small herbivores?

A
  • Burring
  • Never clipping
  • Extractions only if pathology irreversible, will need supportive feeding
  • Palliative care if tooth root issues
207
Q

What are the goals of cheek teeth/step mouth treatment in small herbivores?

A
  • To prevent teeth traumatising any soft tissues
  • To allow for normal mastication cycle to continue
  • Connot return the teeth to normal anatomy
208
Q

How are cheek teeth/step mouth treated in small herbivores?

A
  • Burring – avoid clipping or hand rasping
  • Extractions – only remove teeth that are mobile or associated with abscessation (teeth below will elongated and teeth on the other side will be damaged). Abscesses need marsupialising
  • Palliative treatment if tooth root abnormalities
209
Q

How is dacryocystitis treated in small herbivores?

A
  • Tear duct flushes
  • NSAIDs
  • Antibiotics – if corneal ulcer
  • Ocular topicals? Licensed one (isoderm?) is very thick and will often make things worse in this area of the body
210
Q

How is dacryocystitis diagnosed in small herbivores?

A
  • Cultures and cytology from fluid aspirates
  • Fluorescein stain both cornea – risk of corneal ulcers is very high with the amount of material in the eye
  • CT/radiography with/without dacrocystogram
211
Q

How do tear duct flushes treat dacryocystits in small herbivores?

A
  • Proxymetacaine LA
  • Plastic part of canula in right hand and left hand pull bottom eyelid down and forward and place canula into hole that is opened with this action
  • Pulse flush
  • If not flushing at all = obstruction/blocked tear duct – investigate further as to why
212
Q

How is dental disease prevented in small herbivores?

A
  • Supportive feeding good but won’t help to keep teeth short
  • Analgesia to prevent ileus
  • Appropriate diet
  • Regular burring to prevent tooth root retropulsion and abscesses

CVSOH 4 (25 decks)

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