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Question

discuss bowlbyd thpery of maternal deprivqtion

Answer 1

idea that the absence of a mother figure will lead to poor psychological development concept of the critical period concept of deprivation – prolonged/accumulated separation from the mother figure consequences of deprivation – reduced intelligence/IQ; emotional problems; delinquency; affectionless psychopathy. it is likely that Ryan has experienced maternal deprivation/lack of a mother figure during the critical period, having spent his first five years in care Ryan is demonstrating some of the consequences of deprivation – emotional problems, ‘difficult relationship’ with parents and friends; reduced intelligence, ‘below average in most subjects’; delinquency – ‘anti-social behaviour’; relationship with others/delinquency may be due to lack of empathy/affectionless psychopathy. use of evidence to support/contradict the effects of deprivation, including evidence that suggests the effects are reversible/not long-term, eg Bowlby (1944), Goldfarb (1955), Romanian orphan studies, Koluchova – Czech twins Bowlby’s failure to distinguish between deprivation and privation (Rutter) wider implications of the theory, eg for institutional care issue of social sensitivity/gender bias economic implications of Bowlby’s theory.

Answer 2

knowledge of factors affecting minority influence including consistency/persistence, commitment (the augmentation principle), flexibility knowledge of other factors, eg confidence synchronic (consistency between members of minority) and/or diachronic consistency (consistency over time) process of conversion/internalisation accept minority influence processes involved in social change, such as the ‘snowball effect’, social cryptoamnesia description of studies of minority influence, eg Moscovici et al (1969), Wood et al (1994), Nemeth and Brilmayar (1987). use of research to support/contradict minority influence factors/processes, eg Moscovici et al (blue- green slides) the importance of consistency; Nemeth and Brilmayar (jury situation) support for flexibility use of real-life examples of social change (eg. Women’s rights movement), to illustrate processes evidence suggests conversion to minority influence involves deeper thought, eg Martin et al (2003), Wood et al (1994) artificiality of tasks/evidence vs struggle of real minorities majorities in real-life have power and status, not just numbers methodological strengths and weaknesses of research into minority influence, including ethics

Answer 3

knowledge of studies of the effects of anxiety on EWT, eg Johnson and Scott (1976), Yuille and Cutshall (1986), Deffenbacher, Christiansen and Hubinette, Loftus and Burns knowledge of theories/explanations that account for the effects of anxiety, eg weapon focus; tunnel theory the inverted U hypothesis (Yerkes-Dodson) – concept of optimal arousal understanding that anxiety/arousal may have an enhancing or deleterious effect upon the reliability of EWT. use of evidence to support/contradict the effects of anxiety on EWT, eg Johnson and Scott (knife/pen) supports weapon focus/tunnel theory; Christiansen and Hubinette – higher anxiety, superior recall the element of surprise, rather than anxiety, may account for findings, eg Pickel (scissors, handgun, wallet, chicken) cognitive factors in recall may be more important than emotional factors methodological strengths and weaknesses of research into anxiety and EWT eg demand characteristics vs real life discussion of contradictory findings of lab vs more real-life investigations ethical issues associated with manipulation of anxiety in studies alternative explanations for (un)reliability of EWT, eg misleading information.

Answer 4

Marcus could show consistency by keeping on repeating the same message about how great it would be to go travelling * Marcus could show commitment by explaining how he is taking time and working hard to plan the travelling trip and saving for the trip * Marcus could show flexibility by listening to the others and agree to going on a beach holiday at the end of the travelling trip

Answer 5

involves responding to questions on a questionnaire/during interview * elaboration of a self-report method eg (open/closed questions, structured/unstructured)

Answer 6

* Asch found that group size affected level of conformity – up to 3 confederates levels increased, thereafter they tended to plateau * Asch found that task difficulty affected level of conformity – where the lines were of similar length making the judgement more difficult conformity levels increased (whereas when correct answer was obvious the levels decreased) * Asch found that unanimity affected level of conformity – where the majority were unanimous in their wrong answer, conformity levels increased (whereas when there was an ally, conformity levels deceased) * Asch’s findings may not be so relevant today – the outcome may have been influenced by social attitudes of the 1950s – post-war attitudes that people should work together and consent rather than dissent * Asch’s task was artificial – therefore not a valid measure of real life conformity where conforming takes place in a social context and often with people we know rather than strangers * Gender bias – use of a male sample thus may not represent female behaviour * Use of volunteer sample whose behaviour may not represent that of a wider population * Ethical problems including deception (participants believed they were taking part in a test of perception) and protection from harm (participants were put in a stressful and embarrassing situation)

Answer 7

Annie’s case/remembering how to skateboard is an example of procedural memory (1) because she is remembering an action or muscle-based memory (1). * Germaine’s case/remembering what happened is an example of episodic memory (or autobiographical memory) (1) because he recalls the events that took place at a specific point in time (1). * Billy’s case/remembering the names of tools is an example of semantic memory (1) because he remembers factual/meaningful information (1).

Answer 8

* Capacity is thought to be 7 items plus or minus 2 items (between 5 and 9). Capacity can be increased by chunking items together to reduce the number of separate items overall * Duration is thought to be approximately 18-30 seconds. Duration can be extended by verbal rehearsal ie information can be maintained in the rehearsal loop * Coding is acoustic, sound based, phonological, auditory. Causes confusion where material sounds the same

Answer 9

The working memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1970s as an updated version of STM * WM is understood as an active processor * The components and their functions and properties; central executive; phonological loop/store (articulatory and acoustic processing); visuo-spatial scratchpad/sketchpad; episodic buffer. Credit diagram * Description of what research evidence has shown/findings of studies/conclusions in relation to working memory in general or the different components including: * Concurrent/dual task studies * Articulatory suppression studies * Brain imaging research showing different areas of the brain are active when performing different types of task * Clinical evidence of selective impairments to STM sible discussion points: * Explains how different cognitive processes interact * Comparison with passive view of STM in the MSM * Use of evidence to support or contradict the concept of working memory * Discussion/evaluation of working memory research eg issues of validity in dual task research/scanning studies where tasks might be seen as unrealistic/artificial; sampling issues and generalisation * Problem of testing/fully explaining the central executive * Applications eg explains processing deficits like reading difficulties and offers possible routes to therapy

Answer 10

Attachment to primary caregiver provides child with internal working model of relationships (Bowlby) * Abi’s secure childhood relationships would have ensured a positive internal working model * The model represents /gives a mental view of relationship with primary figure and acts as a template for future relationships * Continuity in quality/type of relationship across generations. * Abi’s understanding of relationships has been carried forward so she now has positive secure relationships with her two children * Abi’s children use their internal working model of the relationship they have with their mother to inform their interactions with other children – so they make friends easily and are confident

Answer 11

Observation in a controlled environment. * Series of 3-minute episodes – mother and baby; stranger enters; mother leaves; mother returns etc. * Recording of child’s response in the different stages eg proximity-seeking, accepting comfort from stranger, response to being re-united. * Analysis of observations leads to measuring infant’s type of attachment as either securely attached, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant. Strange Situation research can be replicated (high level of control, standardised procedure) and has been carried out successfully in many different cultures. * Cultural relativity - the same method may not be appropriate for all cultures because of differences in child-rearing practices (eg van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg found percentages are different in other cultures eg more insecure-avoidant in Germany). * Validity of some measures can be questioned – eg proximity-seeking may be a measure of insecurity rather than security. * Variables measured did not take consideration of factors such as temperament and wider family influences. * Focus on the mother as primary attachment figure.

Answer 12

* measured obedience using electric shock experiment: change of venue to run-down building obedience levels dropped by 17.5% (accept 65% at Yale vs 47.5% in run-down office) * the status of the location changed the participant’s perception of the legitimacy of the authority of the investigator * higher authority at Yale than in the run-down office led to higher obedience levels/lower authority in run-down building led to lower levels of obedience.

Answer 13

can easily be replicated, therefore reliability can be assessed * it is easier to control the variables, so that it is only the independent variable that is being manipulated * can determine whether the IV does cause the DV to change, causal conclusions can be drawn * as the situation is artificial, there is a loss of validity * lack of mundane realism in the electric shock task * demand characteristics may cause participants to behave in ways that are not normal * investigator effects can also cause participants to behave differently * issues relating to the sample leading to bias and lack of representativeness * use of evidence to support or refute the evaluation.

Answer 14

* general concept of locus of control – Rotter (1966) * people are more likely to resist social influence if they have an internal locus of control * internal locus of control enables greater personal efficacy, self-confidence use of evidence for the effect of locus of control on resisting obedience, eg Holland (1967), Elms & Milgram (1974) * use of evidence for the effect of locus of control on resisting conformity, eg Spector (1983), Avtgis (1988) * other factors involved in resistance, eg social support, reactance, status, morality and ionic deviance

Answer 15

.addresses the problem of order effects, eg practice, may have occurred in the repeated measures design/because participants took part in both conditions * by having half the participants do the conditions in a different order any order effects affect both conditions equally.

Answer 16

* retroactive interference is where a newer memory disrupts an older memory: the older information is forgotten * retroactive interference is where two lots of information become confused/mixed up in memory * retroactive interference is greater when the two lots of information are similar * retroactive interference is less likely to occur when there is a gap between the instances of learning.

Answer 17

* vague, untestable nature of the central executive or episodic buffer * evidence suggesting the central executive is not unitary, eg EVR had good reasoning skills but was poor at decision-making * evidence that visuo-spatial scratch pad is not unitary and divided into inner scribe and visual cache * supported by highly controlled lab studies which may undermine the validity of the model * doesn’t account for musical memory because it’s possible to listen to instrumental music without impairing performance on other auditory tasks.

Answer 18

* randomly divided a clutch of goose eggs * half-hatched in an incubator and the first ‘thing’ they saw was Lorenz * half-hatched with their mother * once hatched the two groups were mixed up and Lorenz observed who/what they followed * he varied the time between birth and seeing a moving object so he could measure the critical period for imprinting

Answer 19

* Bowlby’s theory of the internal working model – primary attachment relationship as a template for later relationships; affects later (adult) relationships and own success as a parent * Hazan and Shaver’s research on types of adult relationships and the links with Ainsworth’s secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant types * adult attachment interview (Main et al) continuity between early attachment type and adult classification/behaviours * research into relationships with own children when they become a parent, eg Bailey et al, (2007), Harlow (1966). * evidence to support or challenge Bowlby’s internal working model * evidence to support/contradict continuity of attachment type from childhood into adulthood and across generations, eg Main (1985), Hazan and Shaver (1987), Bailey et al (2007) * counter-evidence, eg to suggest that children can recover from deprivation/privation and form effective adult relationships * implications of findings re continuity, eg determinism * practical implications, eg relationship stability in adulthood

Answer 20

 24 U.S male student volunteers  randomly assigned role of prisoner or guard  prisoners unexpectedly arrested at home  deloused, given prison uniform and ID number  given some rights, eg 3 meals, 3 supervised toilet trips a day and 2 visits per week  guards were given uniforms, clubs, whistles and wore reflective sunglasses  Zimbardo took role of prison superintendent  planned duration was 2 weeks  stopped after 6 days. ethical issues: lack of informed consent, whether or not the consent gained was sufficiently informed; deception; lack of protection from psychological harm – whether or not the distress should have been anticipated  Zimbardo playing a ‘dual-role’. Zimbardo’s own behaviour affected the way in which events unfolded, thus the validity of the findings could be questioned  methodological issues: sample bias; demand characteristics/lack of internal validity; lack of ecological validity/mundane realism and their implications for the findings  good internal validity: participant selection; random allocation of role

Answer 21

 one of the slave systems controlled by the central executive  deals with auditory/sound information or deals with both written and spoken material  can be subdivided into the phonological store (inner ear) and the articulatory process (inner voice)  the phonological store stores the words you hear (in speech form)  the articulatory process allows for maintenance rehearsal  has a limited capacity/the capacity of the loop is what can be said in 2 seconds.

Answer 22

 her report would be sent for independent scrutiny (checked/reviewed) by other psychologists.  they would consider eg validity, ethics, errors, significance, originality and possible improvements.  to see whether it should be published.

Answer 23

 Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied. The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain. Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany but rare in Israel and Japan. Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures  Takahashi (1990) who found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood  Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely rather than securely attached  students may refer to positive aspects of the strange situation such as replication of the controlled conditions  the Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s meta-analysis can be criticised because of the limited number of studies in some countries. Also the problems of over-generalising from a limited sample could be relevant  the validity of research using the strange situation can be questioned; students may refer to temperament or experiences such as childcare which may relate to the attachment type  children who have been in day care may appear to be insecurely avoidant because they are used to being separated from their mother  imposed etic; the strange situation was developed in America and may have limitations in studying attachment types in different cultures, especially where child-rearing patterns are different

Answer 24

 it is not a unitary store  range of research support, eg dual task studies, brain scanning studies  the WMM explains STM as a more active process than the MSM.

Answer 25

* consistency is repeating the same message, challenging the beliefs held by the majority. Consistency may be within the members of the group or over time. This draws attention to the minority view * commitment is shown when members of the minority demonstrate their dedication to their belief perhaps by making sacrifices. This shows that the minority is not acting out of self-interest * over time, consistency and/or commitment gives the members of the majority an opportunity to listen to the minority view and adopt it as their own. * discussion of effectiveness of consistency and commitment e.g. internalisation, drawing attention, snowball. * use of research such as that by Moscovici to support the role of consistency in minority influence * discussion of the link between commitment and the augmentation principle * discussion of the link between commitment (tipping point) and the snowball effect * discussion that suggests other factors also play a role in minority influence, not just consistency and commitment * discussion of implications, e.g. examples of real life situations (such as the suffragettes) * discussion of ethics, e.g. deliberate manipulation

Answer 26

* requires special training and police forces do not have enough time to invest in training the officers to use it * reference to research support suggesting not all aspects of the cognitive interview are as useful as others, e.g. Milne and Bull (2002) * amount of inaccurate information gathered is also increased, e.g. Köhnken et al., (1999) * not all techniques are appropriate for use with children, e.g. change perspective not possible until children are no longer egocentric.

Answer 27

* the role of societal norms in shaping the role of the father * research to support that fathers can be the primary attachment figure, e.g. Field (1978) * research showing that quality of adolescent attachment to father is related to fathers’ play with infants, e.g. Grossman (2002) * there is inconsistency in the research as to the role of the father and whether he plays a distinct role * research investigating the effects of growing up in single or same-sex parent families shows there is no effect on development and suggests that the role of the father is not important * evolutionary explanations for biological differences in male/female roles in attachmen

Answer 28

students might refer to the Yerkes-Dodson law which suggests moderate anxiety is associated with better recall than very high or very low anxiety * in Johnson & Scott (1976) weapon focus experiment more participants correctly identified a person when they were holding a pen (49%) than when they were holding a knife covered in blood (33%) * Loftus and Burns (1982) found participants who saw a violent version of a crime where a boy was shot in the face had impaired recall for events leading up to the incident * however, in a real-life study Yuille and Cutshall (1986) found witnesses who had been most distressed at the time of a shooting gave the most accurate account five months later. * the contradictory nature of the research, e.g. the Yerkes-Dodson curve / Deffenbacher’s meta-analysis showed inconsistent effects of anxiety * lack of ecological validity in laboratory studies * problems of control might also be relevant, e.g. in Yuille & Cutshall’s study those who experienced the highest levels of stress were closer to the event, which might have helped their recal

Answer 29

* children may show characteristics of insecure attachment for various reasons, eg because they are used to being separated from their mother in day care, so it may not be a valid measure of attachment type * research has shown that children behave differently depending on which parent they are with, so it may not be a valid measure of attachment type, as what it measures is one relationship rather than a personal characteristic of the infant * the strange situation may be a culture-bound test, as it was developed in America. It may not be valid to use it to study attachment types in different cultures, eg children in Germany are encouraged to be independent and may appear to show insecure avoidant attachment/children in Japan are rarely separated from the mother and may appear insecure resistant * ecological validity may be low as the study was carried out in controlled conditions, which were unfamiliar to the child, and might not represent the attachment type displayed when the infant is at home

Answer 30

Rutter’s ERA study: impaired language and social skills; disinhibited attachment for those adopted after 6 months; most common in the late adopted group; attention seeking, clinginess; disinhibited attachment persisted in many of the adoptees at age 6 and in over 50% at age 11; physical, cognitive and social developmental delay. Differential rates of recovery depending on age of adoption. At age 11, mean IQ 102 for those adopted before 6 months; 86 for those adopted between 6 months and 2 years; 77 for those adopted after 2 years

Answer 31

* babies seek proximity to carer (mother) for safety * babies use signals - social releasers to attract the carer: reciprocity * safe base behaviour * monotropy - this attachment is to a single specific caregiver and this relationship is more important than all the rest * there is a critical/sensitive period for attachment to take place (accept 3-6 months or approx. up to 2.5 years) * consequences of attachment - the internal working model and the continuity hypothesis which influence later relationships

Answer 32

proximity – Milgram – teacher and the learner were in the same room, obedience decreased; touch proximity condition; experimenter leaves the room issues order over the phone, obedience decreased * location – Milgram – run-down office block vs Yale; Hofling hospital location * uniform – Bickman – more likely to obey a man dressed as a guard. In Milgram’s experiment the experimenter wore a grey lab coat. eg uniform as a visible sign of authority, location/setting makes authority seem more/less genuine (legitimacy of authority) * decreased proximity to authority figure meant that participants returned to a more autonomous state (agentic state) * discussion of relative power of factors, eg in Hofling study, 21/22 obeyed even though orders were given over the phone (so legitimacy of setting more important than proximity) * discussion of alternative theories, eg authoritarian personality (Adorno) suggests that dispositional factors are more influential than situational variables methodological evaluation of studies/evidence if made relevant to discussion of the factors/why we obey, eg field studies such as Bickman may have more relevance than lab studies in this context

Answer 33

* version of STM which sees this store as an active processor * description of central executive and sub-systems/components – visuo-spatial scratch/sketch pad (visual cache, inner scribe); phonological store/loop; articulatory loop/control process; primary acoustic store; episodic buffer (versions vary – not all sub-systems need to be present for full marks) * information concerning capacity and coding of each store * allocation of resources/divided attention/dual-task performance. in the early part of the conversation, Rory/the central executive can divide attention between the conversation and the game on his phone * this is because the two tasks use different sub-systems: phonological store/articulatory loop for the conversation and VSSP for the game * when he is asked to recount his route to school (a visuo-spatial task), this places too many demands on the VSSP * this means Rory must abandon his game to free up more attentional resources because of the limited capacity of the stores. * use of evidence to support or refute the model/individual sub-systems, eg Hunt – central executive; KF case study – separate visual and verbal stores in STM; Paulescu et al – PET scan; Logie – mental rotation task for VSSP * explains how cognitive processes interact * a view of memory that is active rather than passive (in contrast to the multi-store model) * provides explanation/treatments for processing deficits, eg dyslexia * explains results of dual task studies, eg Baddeley * vague, untestable nature of the central executive * supported by highly controlled lab studies which may undermine the validity of the model.

Answer 34

Bowlby’s internal working model – Lenny’s (lack of) early attachment has not provided an adequate template/blueprint for later relationships * insecure attachments are associated with fear of intimacy/lack of commitment in adult romantic relationships which may explain Lenny’s inability to ‘settle down’ * maternal deprivation theory – disruption to the maternal bond in early life (critical period) leads to later emotional problems – Lenny’s fear of commitment/intimacy * use of evidence to support argument, eg Hazan and Shaver (Love Quiz)

Answer 35

Lorenz’s procedure and findings – goose eggs randomly divided; half hatched with the mother present (in natural environment); half in an incubator with Lorenz present; behaviour recorded; incubator group followed Lorenz, control group followed the mother; concepts of imprinting and critical period * Harlow’s procedure and findings – in a controlled environment, infant monkeys reared with two mother surrogates; plain wire mother dispensing food, cloth-covered mother with no food; time spent with each mother was recorded; details of fear conditions; long-term effects recorded: sociability, relationship to offspring, etc; preference for contact comfort over food; long-term effects on sociability and own childrearing style * problems of generalising findings from animal studies to humans – argument that, of the two, Harlow’s study (mammalian species) may be more relevant to human experience * implications of imprinting/critical period for human attachment (Lorenz) – ‘window of opportunity’ in which attachments must be formed otherwise this may lead to negative long-term consequences (credit reference to Bowlby’s work in this context, eg maternal deprivation) * implications of early neglect (Harlow) – long-term consequences of poor attachment in childhood for future relationships, eg with own children (again, credit reference to Bowlby in this context – internal working model)

Answer 36

Statistical infrequency: * abnormality is defined as behaviour or characteristics that are rare/uncommon/unusual * occupies the extreme ends of a normal distribution curve, * uses up-to-date statistics * examples of criteria/behaviours/disorders are creditworthy only if used in elaboration of the definition * eg low IQ defined as intellectual disability disorder; OCD as a rare disorder * abnormality is defined as the inability to cope with everyday living * examples of criteria/behaviours/disorders are creditworthy only if used in elaboration of the definition * eg Rosenhan and Seligman criteria (eg irrationality, observer discomfort) * behaviours such as not being able to hold down a job, maintain a relationship, personal hygiene, etc * failure to follow interpersonal rules.

Answer 37

* suggests that OCD is an inherited condition, vulnerability/predisposition is passed on across generations * a number of candidate genes have been implicated as a possible cause for OCD, eg Taylor (2013) identified up to 230 suggesting OCD is polygenic * aetiological heterogeneity – different combinations of genes may cause the disorder in different people * different combinations may also account for different types of OCD * credit reference to specific genes and their function, eg SERT, COMT, 5HT1-D beta * credit reference to neurochemical argument if this is linked to underlying genetic basis. * use of evidence to support genetic basis, eg Nestadt et al (2010) – twin study (68% MZs, 32% DZs) * methodological problems with twin and family studies such as shared environments, social learning * animal studies, eg Ahmari (2016) – genetic basis for repetitive ritualistic behaviour * around half of all cases of OCD tend to follow trauma undermining the genetic explanation * cannot account for OCD in families where there is no previous history * broader issues of biological reductionism, determinism, causation (treatment fallacy) * practical application, eg gene therapy * discussion of alternatives, eg diathesis-stress model.

Answer 38

he questionnaire will be used to collect data specifically for the purpose of the investigation * the questionnaire data will be gathered first-hand from the participants themselves. requires time and effort on the part of the researcher

Answer 39

* the researcher could compare the two questionnaires and note any differences * the researcher could (identify and) remove/deselect any items on his questionnaire that are problematic * items might be problematic because they are leading, ambiguous, too complex, double-barrelled etc * the researcher could incorporate a lie scale, so respondents are less aware that locus of control is being tested

Answer 40

* Central executive is vague and untestable (despite being the component in overall charge) * Central executive itself may be divided into separate sub-components * links with attention research – allocation of resources/divided attention/dual-tasking

Answer 41

test of difference/association – analysing the difference in experience of bullying between teenagers who had a secure or insecure attachment/the association between attachment type and experience of bullying. Test of correlation would not be creditworthy * independent/unrelated design – each teenager cannot appear in more than one category ie secure/insecure; experience of bullying/no experience of bullying * nominal/categorical – the data refers to the number of teenagers in each of the four categories.

Answer 42

* changes in sleep patterns: sleeping less (insomnia)/sleeping more (hypersomnia) * changes in eating patterns: eating more/eating less * social withdrawal * reduced movement * reduced speech.

Answer 43

rational confrontation; ABCDE model – D for dispute, E for effect (reduction of irrational thoughts); shame attacking exercises; empirical and logical argument (Ellis) * patient as scientist; data gathering to test validity of irrational thoughts; reinforcement of positive beliefs (Beck).

Answer 44

* use of drug therapy to ‘correct’ imbalance of neurochemicals, eg serotonin, to reduce symptoms associated with OCD * SSRIs – prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the brain, continue to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron * timescale – 3–4 months of daily use for SSRIs to impact upon symptoms * alternatives to SSRIs – tricyclics, SNRIs * other drugs – benzodiazepines for general relaxation and reduction of anxiety

Answer 45

the median would be better as there is a large anomalous result in the data set (p4 has scored 28). This would distort the mean value making it unrepresentative of the data set as a whole

Answer 46

* controlled observations can minimise extraneous variables * controlled observations are likely to have standardised procedures, so reliability/replication is more of a possibility than in naturalistic observations * cause and effect relationships are easier to establish than in a naturalistic observation.

Answer 47

* description of features of caregiver-infant interaction in humans: reciprocity – two-way interaction between caregiver and child/turn-taking/mirroring; interactional synchrony – simultaneous co-ordinated sequence of movements, communication, emotions * accept other relevant features, eg imitation; baby talk register/‘motherese’ * examples of features * description of evidence of features, eg Isabella et al; Murray and Trevarthan; Condon and Sander; Meltzoff and Moore. use of evidence to support or contradict features * use of controlled observations to capture micro-sequences * infant’s intention is difficult to determine * the purpose of synchrony and reciprocity in attachment is difficult to discern * research is socially sensitive – impact on working mothers.

Answer 48

* comprehensive criteria for mental health * based on similar models of physical health – but mental health may not be the same * criteria are too demanding – most of us would be defined as unhealthy * Western individualist bias.

Answer 49

* obsessive thoughts – persistent and intrusive thoughts of, eg germs * hypervigilance/selective attention – increased awareness of source of obsession in new situations * insight into irrationality of thoughts/behaviour * cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions

Answer 50

development of phobia through classical conditioning – association of fear/anxiety with neutral stimulus to produce conditioned response; assumes experience of traumatic event; generalisation of fear to other similar objects; one trial learning * maintenance of fear through operant conditioning – avoidance of phobic object/situation is negatively reinforcing; relief as reward/primary reinforcer. * Max’s phobia has developed through classical conditioning – association formed between the neutral stimulus (sea) and the fearful event (being carried away by the tide) * the conditioned response is triggered every time Max is near the sea * phobia has generalised to all ‘beach holidays’ * phobia is maintained through operant conditioning – avoidance of fear is reinforcing, so Max avoids the beach. * use of evidence to support/contradict the two-process model, eg Watson and Rayner, DiNardo et al * not all phobias are the result of trauma * alternative evolutionary explanations for more common phobias, eg preparedness * behavioural approach ignores cognitive aspects of phobias * alternative explanations for avoidance, eg safety * behavioural principles underpin therapies based on counterconditioning, eg systematic desensitisation

Answer 51

Retrieval failure  use of evidence, eg Godden and Baddeley suggests that retrieval failure/absence of cues is a valid explanation of forgetting  application of explanation, eg improving memory using mnemonics, category headings  context has to be very different in real-life to have any effect  context effect only occurs when memory is tested in particular ways – free recall vs recognition Interference use of evidence from lab studies, eg McGeoch and McDonald and real-life, eg Schmidt supports the effects of interference  application of explanation, eg avoiding similar material when revising for exams  use of artificial materials in lab studies, eg recall of word lists  deliberate attempt to induce interference in lab studies, eg by limiting time between learning and recall  evidence suggests interference can be overcome using cued recall  interference tends not to occur with experts

Answer 52

mark each for any 2 of the following:  mental retardation/low IQ  delayed language development  quasi-autism  disinhibited attachment  disorganised attachment  delayed physical development, eg restricted growth  impaired adult relationships

Answer 53

 the co-variables (self-esteem and negative schema) have been measured using an ‘unsafe’ non- standardised scale/the researcher constructed the scales herself  the co-variables cannot be measured objectively/mathematically/may not be ‘real things’  because units of measurement are not of equal size/of unknown size

Answer 54

each participant is assigned a number or identified by name * the numbers/names are placed into a random number generator/hat/lottery method * the first participant drawn is assigned to condition 1, the second to condition 2, etc. OR the first 15 participants are assigned to condition 1 and the next 15 are assigned to condition 2.

Answer 55

independent groups the researcher is looking for a difference (between two conditions/sets of data) or an association/relationship (between two variables).

Answer 56

* legitimacy of authority: of context/setting; genuineness/status of authority figure * agentic shift/state: person ‘unthinkingly’ carries out orders; diffusion of responsibility * accept situational factors/variables that affect obedience if these are presented as explanations eg proximity; location; uniform. * accept other possible explanations, eg ‘foot in the door’/gradual commitment; presence of ‘buffers’; locus of control

Answer 57

* asocial/pre-attachment stage * indiscriminate/diffuse attachment/stage * the beginnings of attachment/attachment in the making * specific/discriminate attachment/stage * multiple attachment/stage

Answer 58

caregiver-infant interaction is a two-way/mutual process; each party responds to the other’s signals to sustain interaction (turn-taking). The behaviour of each party elicits a response from the other.

Answer 59

* babies cannot communicate so inferences must be drawn * well-controlled – studies ‘capture’ micro-sequences of interaction * practical issues – babies are often asleep or being fed * issue of intentionality – are imitative behaviours deliberate/conscious? * some studies have failed to replicate earlier findings, eg Koepke et al (1983) * research may be socially sensitive, eg implications for working mothers * economic implications of research * contribution to understanding the importance of care-giver infant interaction

Answer 60

* delayed intellectual development/low IQ/problems with concentration – Anca may struggle more at school than other children/may not learn new behaviours, concepts as quickly * disinhibited attachment – Anca may not know what counts as ‘appropriate’ behaviour towards strangers * emotional development – Anca may experience more temper tantrums, etc. * lack of internal working model – Anca may have difficulty interacting with peers, forming close relationships, etc. * quasi-autism – Anca may have a problem understanding the meaning of social contexts, may display obsessional behaviour, etc. * credit the idea that Anca may have been adopted before the age of 6 months and therefore any effects may not be as severe/long term had she been adopted later. * credit the suggestion that effects may be reversed with sensitive parenting.

Answer 61

* Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) – credit knowledge of individual percentages and more general pattern of findings; more variation within countries than between countries * Simonelli et al (2014) – lower rates of secure attachment and higher rates of insecure-avoidant in Italian study attributed to long working hours * Kyoung (2005) – details of comparison between US and Korean children * Sagi et al (1991) – high rates of insecure-resistant attachments in Israeli children. * meta-analyses include very large samples increasing validity of findings * discussion of more variation within countries than between countries * samples in studies may not represent the culture as a whole * strange situation may be biased towards American/British culture

Answer 62

Systematic desensitisation: * based on classical conditioning – counterconditioning * relaxation training – fear and relaxation cannot coexist (reciprocal inhibition) * formation of anxiety hierarchy * gradual exposure (stepped approach) leading to eventual extinction. Flooding: * immediate exposure to phobic stimulus * exhaustion of phobic response * prevention of avoidance

Answer 63

Failure to function adequately: * abnormality judged as inability to deal with the demands of everyday living * behaviour is maladaptive, irrational or dangerous * behaviour causes personal distress and distress to others. Deviation from ideal mental health: * absence of signs of mental health used to judge abnormality * description of (Jahoda’s) criteria – accurate perception of reality; self-actualisation; resistance to stress; positive attitude towards self; autonomy/independence; environmental mastery * the more criteria someone fails to meet, the more abnormal they are. Failure to function adequately: * evidence that Rob is not coping with everyday tasks – cannot complete homework; he is untidy * Rob is causing others’ distress – his parents and teachers * personal distress – feelings of anxiety, he is frightened. Deviation from ideal mental health: * Rob’s perception of reality is not accurate – hearing voices * voices are preventing Rob from fulfilling potential/achieving self-actualisation – may affect his chances of going to university Failure to function: * recognises the patient’s perspective * judging person as distressed or distressing relies on subjective assessment * not all abnormal behaviour is associated with distress/failure to cope eg psychopathy * not all maladaptive behaviour is an indicator of mental illness. Deviation from ideal mental health: * positive, holistic approach to diagnosis * criteria for mental health are too demanding/unrealistic * culture bias in some criteria, eg value placed on independence/autonomy * use of evidence to support/challenge definitions * comparison/overlap with other definitions – deviation from social norms, statistical infrequency.