question revision

Question 1

what is cog nuerosciecn e

Answer 1

relating mental processes to brain structure

Question 2

outline flight of fight functions

Answer 2

-adrenaline releases from adrenal gland
-emergency response
-inc blood flow, oxygen running repairing muscles

Question 3

inference

Answer 3

assumptions about mental processes that cannot directly be observes

Question 4

how sd treat phobia

Answer 4

-gradual exposure
-anxiety hierarchy
-relaxtion training

Question 5

why scans for ocd

Answer 5

low levels of neurotransmitters might be removed to quickly by impulses that have passed

Question 6

what is meant by primary data

Answer 6

first hand data collected speicifally for the research carried out

Question 7

briefly explain jow excitation and inhibition are involved in synpatic transmittion

Answer 7

1)neurotransmitters can either be excitory or inhibitory
2)if nueortptransmitters are excitatory then thepost synapytic neuorone is more likely to fire an impulse
ee3)if inhibitory then the post synptic neurone less likley to fire impulse
4)excisoty is summed the neuorne less likwly fire if inhibaorty and if excitaoryt more likely

Question 8

outline two features of the cog approach
explain two lims of the cog approach

Answer 8

• Schema are the mental representation of experience and knowledge and understanding.
• Mental processes are information processing and the processing can be compared to that of a
  computer.
• Models can be used to provide testable theories about mental processing and these can be
  studied scientifically and inferences made
• The approach can be seen as mechanical in regarding human thinking as processing like the computer leaving little room for the irrationality seen in emotional behaviours

The focus on detail of exactly what can be recalled by participants in controlled environments means an understanding of everyday use of memory, for example, is missing from explanations. This leads to issues of generalisation.

Question 9

briefly eva;uate rerieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

Answer 9

• use of evidence from studies showing context/state/category dependent forgetting, eg Abernethy
  (1940), Godden and Baddeley (1975), Overton (1972), Peters and McGee (1982), Tulving and
  Pearlstone (1966) suggest that retrieval failure/absence of cues is a valid explanation of
  forgetting
• application of explanation, eg improving memory using mnemonics, category headings; mentally
  reinstating the context in cognitive interview improves EWT
• context has to be very different in real life to have any effect
• context effect only occurs when memory is tested in particular ways: free recall vs recognition.

Question 10

describe and eva;uate the muli store model of memory

Answer 10

• structural nature of the model
• sensory register, STM and LTM are separate, unitary memory stores
• characteristics of each store, eg capacity, duration and coding
• information passes from store to store in a linear way
• functioning/dynamics of the model, eg role of attention to pass info from SR to STM; rehearsal to
  pass info from STM to LTM
• explanations of forgetting are different for each store.
  Possible evaluation points:
• use of evidence to support the distinction between STM and LTM, eg HM, Murdock (1962),
  Glanzer and Cunitz (1966), Beardsley (1997), Squire et al (1992)
• use of evidence to contradict the model, eg KF, Clive Wearing, Tulving et al (1994)
• view of stores as unitary too simplistic – contrast with different types of STM/LTM
• static view of STM contrasted with active processing view of WMM
• discussion of maintenance versus elaborative rehearsal, eg Craik and Tulving (1975) showed
  deep/elaborative processing creates longer memories than shallow processing
• comparison/contrast with alternative models of memory.

Question 11

other than ethical issues explain one limitation os using animals to study attachment in humans

Answer 11

• problems of extrapolation to attachment in human infants – what applies to non-human species
  may not also apply to human infants
• difference in nature and complexity of the bond
• human mothers show more emotional attachment to young than birds
• humans may be able to form attachments at any time
• DNA differences/human brain size differences may reduce generalisability

Question 12

briefyly explain two ways the strange situation tecnique might be odified to be more relaitic

Answer 12

.measure attachment type in the home/a more familiar environment: to improve the ecological
validity of the measure of attachment type
* use different caregivers: to get a wider measure of baby’s attachment as most babies in real life
have multiple attachments
* make the observations covert: to ensure mother’s behaviours towards infant are more natural
(improve internal validity)
* make multiple observations over time as a more realistic assessment of usual attachment type
would be achieved.

Question 13

discuss bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation

Answer 13

• Bowlby’s use of the term ‘deprivation’ – attachment disrupted or broken
• effects on development – intellectual, emotional, social, eg affectionless psychopathy,
  delinquency, low IQ
• critical period – an issue if prolonged separation, if before two and half years (but risk up to five
  years) and if no substitute available
• Bowlby’s theory of irreversibility – consequences cannot be reversed
• internal working model – this can lead to inability to be a good parent
• continuity hypothesis – if there are prolonged separations then there may be issues into
  adulthood.
• use of evidence to support or refute Bowlby’s work, eg Schaffer’s multiple attachments;
  studies contradicting the critical period and reversibility, eg Rutter’s Romanian orphan
  research, eg Lewis (1954) replication with large sample did not find separation from the
  mother and did not predict criminality or difficulty forming close relationships
• Rutter’s criticism that there could be an overstatement of the effects of deprivation
• Bowlby’s confusion over privation and deprivation
• sensitive versus critical period
• real-world application, eg the way children are cared for in hospital has changed as a
  result of Bowlby’s theory/research

Question 14

Explain one limitation of Zimbardo’s research into social roles.

Answer 14

ethical issues: lack of informed consent, whether or not the consent gained was sufficiently
informed; deception; lack of protection from psychological harm – participants soon
became distressed; whether or not the distress should have been anticipated; right to
withdraw was initially declined

Question 15

give two behavioural chacteristicsnof phobias that would be seen in someoe who has a ohobia if dogd

Answer 15

• avoidance – Rita no longer going to her friend’s house where a dog might be encountered/Rita tries
  not to leave the house in case she sees a dog on the street
• freeze response/endurance behaviours – Rita cannot move until the dog has walked away
• panic behaviours – Rita shakes in the presence of her friend’s dogs

Question 16

explain the process of synaptic transmission

Answer 16

• electrical impulses (action potentials) reach the presynaptic terminal
• electrical impulses (action potentials) trigger release of neurotransmitters (or named example) from
  synaptic vesicles
• neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft
• neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.

Question 17

outline two ways in whic the psychologist might change thw design of this study to deal with this problems

Answer 17

• tell the teachers they would need to complete meditation or healthy diet for a week
• tell them they would have their heart rate measured at the beginning and end of the week
• explain they have the right to withdraw
• ask for agreement/obtain a signature.

Question 18

outline what is meant my cog neuroscience

Answer 18

• scientific study of brain/neurological structures, mechanisms, processes, chemistry that are
  responsible for cognitive/mental/thinking processes
• the use of scanning techniques
• the study of neurotypical individuals to locate the physical basis of cognitive processes in the brain
• use of examples

Question 19

outline and evaluate statistical infreqency and deviation from ideal mental health as definition of abnormality

Answer 19

statistical infrequency/deviation from statistical norms: abnormal behaviour is that which is
rare/uncommon/anomalous; this definition focuses on the quantity of behaviour measured in standard
deviations from the mean rather than the quality
* deviation from ideal mental health: absence of signs of mental health used to judge abnormality;
description of (Jahoda’s) criteria – accurate perception of reality; self-actualisation; resistance to
stress; positive attitude towards self; autonomy/independence; environmental mastery; the more
criteria someone fails to meet, the more abnormal they are.

• statistical infrequency/deviation from statistical norms: fails to account for behaviour that is statistically
  rare but desirable such as having a very high IQ; some disorders are not statistically rare; issue of who
  decides where the cut-off point is
• deviation from ideal mental health: positive, holistic approach to diagnosis; criteria for mental health
  are too demanding/unrealistic – most people would be judged abnormal based on this definition
  because they would fail at least one criterion at some point; culture bias – many of the criteria reflect
  Western cultural norms of psychological ‘normality’, eg value placed on independence/autonomy

Question 20

briefly outline the dveiation from ideal mental health defiiton of abnormality

Answer 20

bnormality is the absence of criteria for good mental health (as in physical illness)

Jahoda proposed criteria of ‘optimal living’
identification/knowledge of criteria, eg. resistance to stress; accurate perception of reality; working
towards self-actualisation; positive view of self; lack of dependence on others; ability to adapt
the more criteria are absent, the more serious the abnormality.

Question 21

evaluate the ffa for abnormality

Answer 21

a form of (indirect) observation that examines artefacts/communications/form of media that
people producePossible evaluation:
recognises the patient’s perspective/experience is important in defining abnormality
provides a threshold for professional help for those who need it most
failure to function may be a normal reaction to a traumatic event, eg a bereavement
can rely on a subjective assessment (though there have been attempts to make judgements more
objective, eg Global Assessment of Functioning)
can use more objective measures of failing to function adequately eg. poor attendance data at
school/work
some people appear to function perfectly normally despite being seriously ill/disturbed, eg Harold
Shipman; some depressed patients
overlap/comparison with other definitions, eg deviation from social norms.

Question 22

wgat is content analysis

Question 23

ne ways researchers could have used content anlaysis to anylse diary extracts in invesigations

Answer 23

‘word/phrase/theme’ could be
counted/tallied/categorised

Question 24

explain hw reloiability oof contrnt analuss coild be improvved

Answer 24

researchers should clarify/establish/agree/review operationalised codes/categories etc
researchers could create new categories if necessary (that are mutually exclusive)

Question 25

discuss bowlbyd thpery of maternal deprivqtion

Answer 25

idea that the absence of a mother figure will lead to poor psychological development
concept of the critical period
concept of deprivation – prolonged/accumulated separation from the mother figure
consequences of deprivation – reduced intelligence/IQ; emotional problems; delinquency;
affectionless psychopathy.

it is likely that Ryan has experienced maternal deprivation/lack of a mother figure during the critical
period, having spent his first five years in care
Ryan is demonstrating some of the consequences of deprivation – emotional problems, ‘difficult
relationship’ with parents and friends; reduced intelligence, ‘below average in most subjects’;
delinquency – ‘anti-social behaviour’; relationship with others/delinquency may be due to lack of
empathy/affectionless psychopathy.

use of evidence to support/contradict the effects of deprivation, including evidence that suggests the
effects are reversible/not long-term, eg Bowlby (1944), Goldfarb (1955), Romanian orphan studies,
Koluchova – Czech twins
Bowlby’s failure to distinguish between deprivation and privation (Rutter)
wider implications of the theory, eg for institutional care
issue of social sensitivity/gender bias
economic implications of Bowlby’s theory.

Question 26

dsicuss resreach into minorty infkuecne

Answer 26

knowledge of factors affecting minority influence including consistency/persistence, commitment (the
augmentation principle), flexibility
knowledge of other factors, eg confidence
synchronic (consistency between members of minority) and/or diachronic consistency (consistency
over time)
process of conversion/internalisation
accept minority influence processes involved in social change, such as the ‘snowball effect’, social
cryptoamnesia
description of studies of minority influence, eg Moscovici et al (1969), Wood et al (1994), Nemeth and
Brilmayar (1987).

use of research to support/contradict minority influence factors/processes, eg Moscovici et al (blue-
green slides) the importance of consistency; Nemeth and Brilmayar (jury situation) support for
flexibility
use of real-life examples of social change (eg. Women’s rights movement), to illustrate processes
evidence suggests conversion to minority influence involves deeper thought, eg Martin et al (2003),
Wood et al (1994)
artificiality of tasks/evidence vs struggle of real minorities
majorities in real-life have power and status, not just numbers
methodological strengths and weaknesses of research into minority influence, including ethics

Question 27

discuss research into the effcst of anxiety on th3e accuracy of eye witness testimony

Answer 27

knowledge of studies of the effects of anxiety on EWT, eg Johnson and Scott (1976), Yuille and
Cutshall (1986), Deffenbacher, Christiansen and Hubinette, Loftus and Burns
knowledge of theories/explanations that account for the effects of anxiety, eg weapon focus; tunnel
theory
the inverted U hypothesis (Yerkes-Dodson) – concept of optimal arousal
understanding that anxiety/arousal may have an enhancing or deleterious effect upon the reliability of
EWT.

use of evidence to support/contradict the effects of anxiety on EWT, eg Johnson and Scott (knife/pen)
supports weapon focus/tunnel theory; Christiansen and Hubinette – higher anxiety, superior recall
the element of surprise, rather than anxiety, may account for findings, eg Pickel (scissors, handgun,
wallet, chicken)
cognitive factors in recall may be more important than emotional factors
methodological strengths and weaknesses of research into anxiety and EWT eg demand
characteristics vs real life
discussion of contradictory findings of lab vs more real-life investigations
ethical issues associated with manipulation of anxiety in studies
alternative explanations for (un)reliability of EWT, eg misleading information.

Question 28

Marcus wants to persuade his group of friends to go travelling in the summer but the rest of the group would like to go on a beach holiday.
Briefly suggest how Marcus might use the three behaviours that you have identified in your answer to 01.1 to persuade his friends to go travelling.

Answer 28

Marcus could show consistency by keeping on repeating the same message about how great it would be to go travelling
* Marcus could show commitment by explaining how he is taking time and working hard to plan the travelling trip and saving for the trip
* Marcus could show flexibility by listening to the others and agree to going on a beach holiday at the end of the travelling trip

Question 29

Outline what is involved in self-report

Answer 29

involves responding to questions on a questionnaire/during interview
* elaboration of a self-report method eg (open/closed questions, structured/unstructured)

Question 30

Outline Asch’s findings in relation to two variables affecting conformity. Briefly explain two
PMT
limitations of Asch’s conformity research

Answer 30

• Asch found that group size affected level of conformity – up to 3 confederates levels increased, thereafter they tended to plateau
• Asch found that task difficulty affected level of conformity – where the lines were of similar length making the judgement more difficult conformity levels increased (whereas when correct answer was obvious the levels decreased)
• Asch found that unanimity affected level of conformity – where the majority were unanimous in their wrong answer, conformity levels increased (whereas when there was an ally, conformity levels deceased)
• Asch’s findings may not be so relevant today – the outcome may have been influenced by social attitudes of the 1950s – post-war attitudes that people should work together and consent rather than dissent
• Asch’s task was artificial – therefore not a valid measure of real life conformity where conforming takes place in a social context and often with people we know rather than strangers
• Gender bias – use of a male sample thus may not represent female behaviour
• Use of volunteer sample whose behaviour may not represent that of a wider population
• Ethical problems including deception (participants believed they were taking part in a test of perception) and protection from harm (participants were put in a stressful and embarrassing
  situation)

Question 31

Identify three types of long-term memory and explain how each type is shown in one of the examples abov

Answer 31

Annie’s case/remembering how to skateboard is an example of procedural memory (1) because she is remembering an action or muscle-based memory (1).
* Germaine’s case/remembering what happened is an example of episodic memory (or autobiographical memory) (1) because he recalls the events that took place at a specific point in time (1).
* Billy’s case/remembering the names of tools is an example of semantic memory (1) because he remembers factual/meaningful information (1).

Question 32

Outline what psychological research has shown about short-term memory according to the multi- store model of memory.

Answer 32

• Capacity is thought to be 7 items plus or minus 2 items (between 5 and 9). Capacity can be
  increased by chunking items together to reduce the number of separate items overall
• Duration is thought to be approximately 18-30 seconds. Duration can be extended by verbal
  rehearsal ie information can be maintained in the rehearsal loop
• Coding is acoustic, sound based, phonological, auditory. Causes confusion where material sounds
  the same

Question 33

Discuss what psychological research has shown about working memory. In your answer, refer to theory and/or evidence.

Answer 33

The working memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1970s as an updated version of STM
* WM is understood as an active processor
* The components and their functions and properties; central executive; phonological loop/store
(articulatory and acoustic processing); visuo-spatial scratchpad/sketchpad; episodic buffer. Credit
diagram
* Description of what research evidence has shown/findings of studies/conclusions in relation to
working memory in general or the different components including:
* Concurrent/dual task studies
* Articulatory suppression studies
* Brain imaging research showing different areas of the brain are active when performing
different types of task
* Clinical evidence of selective impairments to STM

sible discussion points:
* Explains how different cognitive processes interact
* Comparison with passive view of STM in the MSM
* Use of evidence to support or contradict the concept of working memory

• Discussion/evaluation of working memory research eg issues of validity in dual task research/scanning studies where tasks might be seen as unrealistic/artificial; sampling issues and generalisation
• Problem of testing/fully explaining the central executive
• Applications eg explains processing deficits like reading difficulties and offers possible routes to
  therapy

Question 34

Abi had a happy, secure childhood with parents who loved her very much. She now has two children of her own and loves them very much too. The two children make friends easily and are confident and trusting.
Referring to Abi and her family, explain what psychologists have discovered about the internal working model.

Answer 34

Attachment to primary caregiver provides child with internal working model of relationships (Bowlby)
* Abi’s secure childhood relationships would have ensured a positive internal working model
* The model represents /gives a mental view of relationship with primary figure and acts as a
template for future relationships
* Continuity in quality/type of relationship across generations.
* Abi’s understanding of relationships has been carried forward so she now has positive secure
relationships with her two children
* Abi’s children use their internal working model of the relationship they have with their mother to
inform their interactions with other children – so they make friends easily and are confident

Question 35

Discuss the Strange Situation as a way of assessing type of attachment.

Answer 35

Observation in a controlled environment.
* Series of 3-minute episodes – mother and baby; stranger enters; mother leaves; mother returns
etc.
* Recording of child’s response in the different stages eg proximity-seeking, accepting comfort
from stranger, response to being re-united.
* Analysis of observations leads to measuring infant’s type of attachment as either securely
attached, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant.

Strange Situation research can be replicated (high level of control, standardised procedure) and has been carried out successfully in many different cultures.
* Cultural relativity - the same method may not be appropriate for all cultures because of differences in child-rearing practices (eg van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg found percentages are different in other cultures eg more insecure-avoidant in Germany).
* Validity of some measures can be questioned – eg proximity-seeking may be a measure of insecurity rather than security.
* Variables measured did not take consideration of factors such as temperament and wider family influences.
* Focus on the mother as primary attachment figure.

Question 36

Outline and explain the findings of Milgram’s investigation into the effect of location on
obedience.

Answer 36

• measured obedience using electric shock experiment: change of venue to run-down building
  obedience levels dropped by 17.5% (accept 65% at Yale vs 47.5% in run-down office)
• the status of the location changed the participant’s perception of the legitimacy of the authority of the
  investigator
• higher authority at Yale than in the run-down office led to higher obedience levels/lower authority in
  run-down building led to lower levels of obedience.

Question 37

Apart from ethical issues, briefly evaluate the methodology of Milgram’s research into
obedience.

Answer 37

can easily be replicated, therefore reliability can be assessed
* it is easier to control the variables, so that it is only the independent variable that is being
manipulated
* can determine whether the IV does cause the DV to change, causal conclusions can be drawn
* as the situation is artificial, there is a loss of validity
* lack of mundane realism in the electric shock task
* demand characteristics may cause participants to behave in ways that are not normal
* investigator effects can also cause participants to behave differently
* issues relating to the sample leading to bias and lack of representativeness
* use of evidence to support or refute the evaluation.

Question 38

Outline and evaluate locus of control as an explanation for resistance to social
influence

Answer 38

• general concept of locus of control – Rotter (1966)
• people are more likely to resist social influence if they have an internal locus of control
• internal locus of control enables greater personal efficacy, self-confidence

use of evidence for the effect of locus of control on resisting obedience, eg Holland (1967), Elms
& Milgram (1974)
* use of evidence for the effect of locus of control on resisting conformity, eg Spector (1983),
Avtgis (1988)
* other factors involved in resistance, eg social support, reactance, status, morality and ionic
deviance

Question 38

Explain how using counterbalancing might improve the design of the study.

Answer 38

.addresses the problem of order effects, eg practice, may have occurred in the repeated
measures design/because participants took part in both conditions
* by having half the participants do the conditions in a different order any order effects affect both
conditions equally.

Question 39

Outline retroactive interference as an explanation for forgetting.

Answer 39

• retroactive interference is where a newer memory disrupts an older memory: the older
  information is forgotten
• retroactive interference is where two lots of information become confused/mixed up in memory
• retroactive interference is greater when the two lots of information are similar
• retroactive interference is less likely to occur when there is a gap between the instances of
  learning.

Question 40

Explain one limitation of the working memory model.

Answer 40

• vague, untestable nature of the central executive or episodic buffer
• evidence suggesting the central executive is not unitary, eg EVR had good reasoning skills
  but was poor at decision-making
• evidence that visuo-spatial scratch pad is not unitary and divided into inner scribe and
  visual cache
• supported by highly controlled lab studies which may undermine the validity of the model
• doesn’t account for musical memory because it’s possible to listen to instrumental music
  without impairing performance on other auditory tasks.

Question 41

Describe how Lorenz studied attachment in animals.

Answer 41

• randomly divided a clutch of goose eggs
• half-hatched in an incubator and the first ‘thing’ they saw was Lorenz
• half-hatched with their mother
• once hatched the two groups were mixed up and Lorenz observed who/what they followed
• he varied the time between birth and seeing a moving object so he could measure the critical period
  for imprinting

Question 42

Discuss research into the influence of early attachment on adult relationships.

Answer 42

• Bowlby’s theory of the internal working model – primary attachment relationship as a
  template for later relationships; affects later (adult) relationships and own success as a
  parent
• Hazan and Shaver’s research on types of adult relationships and the links with Ainsworth’s
  secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant types
• adult attachment interview (Main et al) continuity between early attachment type and adult
  classification/behaviours
• research into relationships with own children when they become a parent, eg Bailey et al,
  (2007), Harlow (1966).
• evidence to support or challenge Bowlby’s internal working model
• evidence to support/contradict continuity of attachment type from childhood into adulthood and
  across generations, eg Main (1985), Hazan and Shaver (1987), Bailey et al (2007)
• counter-evidence, eg to suggest that children can recover from deprivation/privation and form
  effective adult relationships
• implications of findings re continuity, eg determinism
• practical implications, eg relationship stability in adulthood

Question 43

Describe and evaluate the procedure of Zimbardo’s research into social roles.

Answer 43

 24 U.S male student volunteers
 randomly assigned role of prisoner or guard
 prisoners unexpectedly arrested at home
 deloused, given prison uniform and ID number
 given some rights, eg 3 meals, 3 supervised toilet trips a day and 2 visits per week
 guards were given uniforms, clubs, whistles and wore reflective sunglasses
 Zimbardo took role of prison superintendent
 planned duration was 2 weeks
 stopped after 6 days.

ethical issues: lack of informed consent, whether or not the consent gained was sufficiently informed;
deception; lack of protection from psychological harm – whether or not the distress should have been
anticipated
 Zimbardo playing a ‘dual-role’. Zimbardo’s own behaviour affected the way in which events unfolded,
thus the validity of the findings could be questioned
 methodological issues: sample bias; demand characteristics/lack of internal validity; lack of ecological
validity/mundane realism and their implications for the findings
 good internal validity: participant selection; random allocation of role

Question 44

Describe the phonological loop component of the working memory model

Answer 44

 one of the slave systems controlled by the central executive
 deals with auditory/sound information or deals with both written and spoken material
 can be subdivided into the phonological store (inner ear) and the articulatory process (inner voice)
 the phonological store stores the words you hear (in speech form)
 the articulatory process allows for maintenance rehearsal
 has a limited capacity/the capacity of the loop is what can be said in 2 seconds.

Question 45

The psychologist submitted a report of her investigation to a journal for peer review.
What would she expect the process to involve?

Answer 45

 her report would be sent for independent scrutiny (checked/reviewed) by other psychologists.
 they would consider eg validity, ethics, errors, significance, originality and possible
improvements.
 to see whether it should be published.

Question 46

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment.

Answer 46

 Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found secure attachment was the most
common in all cultures studied. The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the
highest in Great Britain. Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany but rare in Israel
and Japan. Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures
 Takahashi (1990) who found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants where mothers
rarely leave infants in early childhood
 Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely
rather than securely attached

 students may refer to positive aspects of the strange situation such as replication of the controlled
conditions
 the Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s meta-analysis can be criticised because of the limited number
of studies in some countries. Also the problems of over-generalising from a limited sample could be
relevant
 the validity of research using the strange situation can be questioned; students may refer to
temperament or experiences such as childcare which may relate to the attachment type
 children who have been in day care may appear to be insecurely avoidant because they are used to
being separated from their mother
 imposed etic; the strange situation was developed in America and may have limitations in studying
attachment types in different cultures, especially where child-rearing patterns are different

Question 47

Suggest one way in which the working memory model might be a better explanation of
short-term memory than the multi-store model

Answer 47

 it is not a unitary store
 range of research support, eg dual task studies, brain scanning studies
 the WMM explains STM as a more active process than the MSM.

Question 48

Outline and discuss how consistency and commitment might contribute to minority
influence.

Answer 48

• consistency is repeating the same message, challenging the beliefs held by the majority. Consistency
  may be within the members of the group or over time. This draws attention to the minority view
• commitment is shown when members of the minority demonstrate their dedication to their belief
  perhaps by making sacrifices. This shows that the minority is not acting out of self-interest
• over time, consistency and/or commitment gives the members of the majority an opportunity to listen
  to the minority view and adopt it as their own.
• discussion of effectiveness of consistency and commitment e.g. internalisation, drawing attention,
  snowball.
• use of research such as that by Moscovici to support the role of consistency in minority influence
• discussion of the link between commitment and the augmentation principle
• discussion of the link between commitment (tipping point) and the snowball effect
• discussion that suggests other factors also play a role in minority influence, not just consistency and
  commitment
• discussion of implications, e.g. examples of real life situations (such as the suffragettes)
• discussion of ethics, e.g. deliberate manipulation

Question 49

Briefly outline one limitation of the cognitive interview.

Answer 49

• requires special training and police forces do not have enough time to invest in training the officers to
  use it
• reference to research support suggesting not all aspects of the cognitive interview are as useful as
  others, e.g. Milne and Bull (2002)
• amount of inaccurate information gathered is also increased, e.g. Köhnken et al., (1999)
• not all techniques are appropriate for use with children, e.g. change perspective not possible until
  children are no longer egocentric.

Question 50

With reference to the conversation above, briefly discuss what research has shown
about the role of the father in attachment.

Answer 50

• the role of societal norms in shaping the role of the father
• research to support that fathers can be the primary attachment figure, e.g. Field (1978)
• research showing that quality of adolescent attachment to father is related to fathers’ play with infants,
  e.g. Grossman (2002)
• there is inconsistency in the research as to the role of the father and whether he plays a distinct role
• research investigating the effects of growing up in single or same-sex parent families shows there is
  no effect on development and suggests that the role of the father is not important
• evolutionary explanations for biological differences in male/female roles in attachmen

Question 50

Discuss what research has shown about the effects of anxiety on eye witness
testimony. Refer to the conversation above in your answer.

Answer 50

students might refer to the Yerkes-Dodson law which suggests moderate anxiety is associated with
better recall than very high or very low anxiety
* in Johnson & Scott (1976) weapon focus experiment more participants correctly identified a person
when they were holding a pen (49%) than when they were holding a knife covered in blood (33%)
* Loftus and Burns (1982) found participants who saw a violent version of a crime where a boy was shot
in the face had impaired recall for events leading up to the incident
* however, in a real-life study Yuille and Cutshall (1986) found witnesses who had been most distressed
at the time of a shooting gave the most accurate account five months later.

• the contradictory nature of the research, e.g. the Yerkes-Dodson curve / Deffenbacher’s meta-analysis
  showed inconsistent effects of anxiety
• lack of ecological validity in laboratory studies
• problems of control might also be relevant, e.g. in Yuille & Cutshall’s study those who experienced the
  highest levels of stress were closer to the event, which might have helped their recal

Question 51

Apart from ethical issues, explain one limitation of the Strange Situation as a measure
of attachment type

Answer 51

• children may show characteristics of insecure attachment for various reasons, eg because they are
  used to being separated from their mother in day care, so it may not be a valid measure of attachment
  type
• research has shown that children behave differently depending on which parent they are with, so it
  may not be a valid measure of attachment type, as what it measures is one relationship rather than a
  personal characteristic of the infant
• the strange situation may be a culture-bound test, as it was developed in America. It may not be valid
  to use it to study attachment types in different cultures, eg children in Germany are encouraged to be
  independent and may appear to show insecure avoidant attachment/children in Japan are rarely
  separated from the mother and may appear insecure resistant
• ecological validity may be low as the study was carried out in controlled conditions, which were
  unfamiliar to the child, and might not represent the attachment type displayed when the infant is at
  home

Question 52

Describe what research with Romanian orphans has shown about the effects of
institutionalisation.

Answer 52

Rutter’s ERA study: impaired language and social skills; disinhibited attachment for those adopted
after 6 months; most common in the late adopted group; attention seeking, clinginess; disinhibited
attachment persisted in many of the adoptees at age 6 and in over 50% at age 11; physical, cognitive
and social developmental delay. Differential rates of recovery depending on age of adoption. At age
11, mean IQ 102 for those adopted before 6 months; 86 for those adopted between 6 months and 2
years; 77 for those adopted after 2 years

Question 53

Outline and evaluate Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment

Answer 53

• babies seek proximity to carer (mother) for safety
• babies use signals - social releasers to attract the carer: reciprocity
• safe base behaviour
• monotropy - this attachment is to a single specific caregiver and this relationship is more important
  than all the rest
• there is a critical/sensitive period for attachment to take place (accept 3-6 months or approx. up to 2.5
  years)
• consequences of attachment - the internal working model and the continuity hypothesis which
  influence later relationships

Question 54

describe how situational variables have been found to affect obedience

discuss what these situation variables tell us about why we obey.

Answer 54

proximity – Milgram – teacher and the learner were in the same room, obedience decreased; touch
proximity condition; experimenter leaves the room issues order over the phone, obedience
decreased
* location – Milgram – run-down office block vs Yale; Hofling hospital location
* uniform – Bickman – more likely to obey a man dressed as a guard. In Milgram’s experiment the
experimenter wore a grey lab coat.

eg uniform as a visible sign of authority,
location/setting makes authority seem more/less genuine (legitimacy of authority)
* decreased proximity to authority figure meant that participants returned to a more autonomous state
(agentic state)
* discussion of relative power of factors, eg in Hofling study, 21/22 obeyed even though orders were
given over the phone (so legitimacy of setting more important than proximity)
* discussion of alternative theories, eg authoritarian personality (Adorno) suggests that dispositional
factors are more influential than situational variables

methodological evaluation of studies/evidence if made relevant to discussion of the factors/why we
obey, eg field studies such as Bickman may have more relevance than lab studies in this context

Question 55

Discuss the working memory model. Refer to Rory’s behaviour in your answer.

Answer 55

• version of STM which sees this store as an active processor
• description of central executive and sub-systems/components – visuo-spatial scratch/sketch pad
  (visual cache, inner scribe); phonological store/loop; articulatory loop/control process; primary acoustic
  store; episodic buffer (versions vary – not all sub-systems need to be present for full marks)
• information concerning capacity and coding of each store
• allocation of resources/divided attention/dual-task performance.

in the early part of the conversation, Rory/the central executive can divide attention between the
conversation and the game on his phone
* this is because the two tasks use different sub-systems: phonological store/articulatory loop for the
conversation and VSSP for the game
* when he is asked to recount his route to school (a visuo-spatial task), this places too many demands
on the VSSP
* this means Rory must abandon his game to free up more attentional resources because of the limited
capacity of the stores.

• use of evidence to support or refute the model/individual sub-systems, eg Hunt – central executive; KF
  case study – separate visual and verbal stores in STM; Paulescu et al – PET scan; Logie – mental
  rotation task for VSSP
• explains how cognitive processes interact
• a view of memory that is active rather than passive (in contrast to the multi-store model)
• provides explanation/treatments for processing deficits, eg dyslexia
• explains results of dual task studies, eg Baddeley
• vague, untestable nature of the central executive
• supported by highly controlled lab studies which may undermine the validity of the model.

Question 56

Explain how, according to attachment research, Lenny’s early experience might have
influenced his later relationships

Answer 56

Bowlby’s internal working model – Lenny’s (lack of) early attachment has not provided an adequate
template/blueprint for later relationships
* insecure attachments are associated with fear of intimacy/lack of commitment in adult romantic
relationships which may explain Lenny’s inability to ‘settle down’
* maternal deprivation theory – disruption to the maternal bond in early life (critical period) leads to later
emotional problems – Lenny’s fear of commitment/intimacy
* use of evidence to support argument, eg Hazan and Shaver (Love Quiz)

Question 57

Outline Lorenz’s and Harlow’s animal studies of attachment. Discuss what these studies
might tell us about human attachment.

Answer 57

Lorenz’s procedure and findings – goose eggs randomly divided; half hatched with the mother present
(in natural environment); half in an incubator with Lorenz present; behaviour recorded; incubator group
followed Lorenz, control group followed the mother; concepts of imprinting and critical period
* Harlow’s procedure and findings – in a controlled environment, infant monkeys reared with two mother
surrogates; plain wire mother dispensing food, cloth-covered mother with no food; time spent with
each mother was recorded; details of fear conditions; long-term effects recorded: sociability,
relationship to offspring, etc; preference for contact comfort over food; long-term effects on sociability
and own childrearing style

• problems of generalising findings from animal studies to humans – argument that, of the two, Harlow’s
  study (mammalian species) may be more relevant to human experience
• implications of imprinting/critical period for human attachment (Lorenz) – ‘window of opportunity’ in
  which attachments must be formed otherwise this may lead to negative long-term consequences
  (credit reference to Bowlby’s work in this context, eg maternal deprivation)
• implications of early neglect (Harlow) – long-term consequences of poor attachment in childhood for
  future relationships, eg with own children (again, credit reference to Bowlby in this context – internal
  working model)

Question 58

Describe the statistical infrequency and failure to function adequately definitions of
abnormality.

Answer 58

Statistical infrequency:
* abnormality is defined as behaviour or characteristics that are rare/uncommon/unusual
* occupies the extreme ends of a normal distribution curve,
* uses up-to-date statistics
* examples of criteria/behaviours/disorders are creditworthy only if used in elaboration of the definition
* eg low IQ defined as intellectual disability disorder; OCD as a rare disorder

• abnormality is defined as the inability to cope with everyday living
• examples of criteria/behaviours/disorders are creditworthy only if used in elaboration of the definition
• eg Rosenhan and Seligman criteria (eg irrationality, observer discomfort)
• behaviours such as not being able to hold down a job, maintain a relationship, personal hygiene, etc
• failure to follow interpersonal rules.

Question 59

Discuss the genetic explanation for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

Answer 59

• suggests that OCD is an inherited condition, vulnerability/predisposition is passed on across
  generations
• a number of candidate genes have been implicated as a possible cause for OCD, eg Taylor (2013)
  identified up to 230 suggesting OCD is polygenic
• aetiological heterogeneity – different combinations of genes may cause the disorder in different people
• different combinations may also account for different types of OCD
• credit reference to specific genes and their function, eg SERT, COMT, 5HT1-D beta
• credit reference to neurochemical argument if this is linked to underlying genetic basis.
• use of evidence to support genetic basis, eg Nestadt et al (2010) – twin study (68% MZs, 32% DZs)
• methodological problems with twin and family studies such as shared environments, social learning
• animal studies, eg Ahmari (2016) – genetic basis for repetitive ritualistic behaviour
• around half of all cases of OCD tend to follow trauma undermining the genetic explanation
• cannot account for OCD in families where there is no previous history
• broader issues of biological reductionism, determinism, causation (treatment fallacy)
• practical application, eg gene therapy
• discussion of alternatives, eg diathesis-stress model.

Question 60

Why would the researcher’s questionnaire produce primary data? Suggest one limitation of
primary data.

Answer 60

he questionnaire will be used to collect data specifically for the purpose of the investigation
* the questionnaire data will be gathered first-hand from the participants themselves.

requires time and effort on the part of the researcher

Question 61

Explain how the validity of the researcher’s questionnaire could be improved.

Answer 61

• the researcher could compare the two questionnaires and note any differences
• the researcher could (identify and) remove/deselect any items on his questionnaire that are
  problematic
• items might be problematic because they are leading, ambiguous, too complex, double-barrelled etc
• the researcher could incorporate a lie scale, so respondents are less aware that locus of control is
  being tested

Question 62

Evaluate the central executive as part of the working memory model

Answer 62

• Central executive is vague and untestable (despite being the component in overall charge)
• Central executive itself may be divided into separate sub-components
• links with attention research – allocation of resources/divided attention/dual-tasking

Question 63

why use chi squared

Answer 63

test of difference/association – analysing the difference in experience of bullying between teenagers
who had a secure or insecure attachment/the association between attachment type and experience of
bullying. Test of correlation would not be creditworthy
* independent/unrelated design – each teenager cannot appear in more than one category ie
secure/insecure; experience of bullying/no experience of bullying
* nominal/categorical – the data refers to the number of teenagers in each of the four categories.

Question 64

Identify two behavioural characteristics of depression.

Answer 64

• changes in sleep patterns: sleeping less (insomnia)/sleeping more (hypersomnia)
• changes in eating patterns: eating more/eating less
• social withdrawal
• reduced movement
• reduced speech.

Question 65

Briefly outline one way that a cognitive psychologist might treat depression by challenging
irrational thoughts.

Answer 65

rational confrontation; ABCDE model – D for dispute, E for effect (reduction of irrational thoughts);
shame attacking exercises; empirical and logical argument (Ellis)
* patient as scientist; data gathering to test validity of irrational thoughts; reinforcement of positive
beliefs (Beck).

Question 66

Describe the biological approach to treating obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

Answer 66

• use of drug therapy to ‘correct’ imbalance of neurochemicals, eg serotonin, to reduce symptoms
  associated with OCD
• SSRIs – prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the brain, continue to stimulate the
  postsynaptic neuron
• timescale – 3–4 months of daily use for SSRIs to impact upon symptoms
• alternatives to SSRIs – tricyclics, SNRIs
• other drugs – benzodiazepines for general relaxation and reduction of anxiety

Question 67

why median is used

Answer 67

the median would be better as there is a large anomalous result in the data set (p4 has scored 28).
This would distort the mean value making it unrepresentative of the data set as a whole

Question 68

Studies of attachment often involve naturalistic observations.
Suggest one way in which studies of attachment could be improved by using controlled
observations.

Answer 68

• controlled observations can minimise extraneous variables
• controlled observations are likely to have standardised procedures, so reliability/replication is more of
  a possibility than in naturalistic observations
• cause and effect relationships are easier to establish than in a naturalistic observation.

Question 69

Discuss research into caregiver-infant interactions in humans.

Answer 69

• description of features of caregiver-infant interaction in humans: reciprocity – two-way interaction
  between caregiver and child/turn-taking/mirroring; interactional synchrony – simultaneous co-ordinated
  sequence of movements, communication, emotions
• accept other relevant features, eg imitation; baby talk register/‘motherese’
• examples of features
• description of evidence of features, eg Isabella et al; Murray and Trevarthan; Condon and Sander;
  Meltzoff and Moore.

use of evidence to support or contradict features
* use of controlled observations to capture micro-sequences
* infant’s intention is difficult to determine
* the purpose of synchrony and reciprocity in attachment is difficult to discern
* research is socially sensitive – impact on working mothers.

Question 70

Briefly evaluate the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality.

Answer 70

• comprehensive criteria for mental health
• based on similar models of physical health – but mental health may not be the same
• criteria are too demanding – most of us would be defined as unhealthy
• Western individualist bias.

Question 71

Outline two cognitive characteristics of obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Answer 71

• obsessive thoughts – persistent and intrusive thoughts of, eg germs
• hypervigilance/selective attention – increased awareness of source of obsession in new situations
• insight into irrationality of thoughts/behaviour
• cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions

Question 72

Discuss the two-process model of phobias. Refer to Max’s phobia of the sea in your
answer

Answer 72

development of phobia through classical conditioning – association of fear/anxiety with neutral
stimulus to produce conditioned response; assumes experience of traumatic event; generalisation of
fear to other similar objects; one trial learning
* maintenance of fear through operant conditioning – avoidance of phobic object/situation is negatively
reinforcing; relief as reward/primary reinforcer.

• Max’s phobia has developed through classical conditioning – association formed between the neutral
  stimulus (sea) and the fearful event (being carried away by the tide)
• the conditioned response is triggered every time Max is near the sea
• phobia has generalised to all ‘beach holidays’
• phobia is maintained through operant conditioning – avoidance of fear is reinforcing, so Max avoids
  the beach.
• use of evidence to support/contradict the two-process model, eg Watson and Rayner, DiNardo et al
• not all phobias are the result of trauma
• alternative evolutionary explanations for more common phobias, eg preparedness
• behavioural approach ignores cognitive aspects of phobias
• alternative explanations for avoidance, eg safety
• behavioural principles underpin therapies based on counterconditioning, eg systematic
  desensitisation

Question 73

Briefly evaluate the explanation of forgetting you have outlined in your answer to

Answer 73

Retrieval failure
 use of evidence, eg Godden and Baddeley suggests that retrieval failure/absence of cues is a
valid explanation of forgetting
 application of explanation, eg improving memory using mnemonics, category headings
 context has to be very different in real-life to have any effect
 context effect only occurs when memory is tested in particular ways – free recall vs recognition

Interference
use of evidence from lab studies, eg McGeoch and McDonald and real-life, eg Schmidt supports
the effects of interference
 application of explanation, eg avoiding similar material when revising for exams
 use of artificial materials in lab studies, eg recall of word lists
 deliberate attempt to induce interference in lab studies, eg by limiting time between learning and
recall
 evidence suggests interference can be overcome using cued recall
 interference tends not to occur with experts

Question 74

State two effects of institutionalisation

Answer 74

mark each for any 2 of the following:
 mental retardation/low IQ
 delayed language development
 quasi-autism
 disinhibited attachment
 disorganised attachment
 delayed physical development, eg restricted growth
 impaired adult relationships

Question 75

why Spearman’s rho is an
appropriate statistical test for this data.

Answer 75

 the co-variables (self-esteem and negative schema) have been measured using an ‘unsafe’ non-
standardised scale/the researcher constructed the scales herself
 the co-variables cannot be measured objectively/mathematically/may not be ‘real things’
 because units of measurement are not of equal size/of unknown size

Question 76

for a study researchers had to use different participants in each conditions and this could have affected results

outline one way in which the researchers could have addressed this issue

Answer 76

each participant is assigned a number or identified by name
* the numbers/names are placed into a random number generator/hat/lottery method
* the first participant drawn is assigned to condition 1, the second to condition 2, etc. OR the
first 15 participants are assigned to condition 1 and the next 15 are assigned to condition 2.

Question 77

Apart from reference to the level of measurement, give two reasons why the
researchers used the chi-squared test.

Answer 77

independent groups
the researcher is looking for a difference (between two conditions/sets of data) or an
association/relationship (between two variables).

Question 78

Outline one alternative explanation for obedience

Answer 78

• legitimacy of authority: of context/setting; genuineness/status of authority figure
• agentic shift/state: person ‘unthinkingly’ carries out orders; diffusion of responsibility
• accept situational factors/variables that affect obedience if these are presented as
  explanations eg proximity; location; uniform.
• accept other possible explanations, eg ‘foot in the door’/gradual commitment; presence of
  ‘buffers’; locus of control

Question 79

Name three of the stages of attachment identified by Schaffer.

Answer 79

• asocial/pre-attachment stage
• indiscriminate/diffuse attachment/stage
• the beginnings of attachment/attachment in the making
• specific/discriminate attachment/stage
• multiple attachment/stage

Question 80

What is meant by ‘reciprocity’ in the context of caregiver-infant interaction?

Answer 80

caregiver-infant interaction is a two-way/mutual process; each party responds to
the other’s signals to sustain interaction (turn-taking). The behaviour of each party elicits a
response from the other.

Question 81

Briefly evaluate research into caregiver-infant interaction.

Answer 81

• babies cannot communicate so inferences must be drawn
• well-controlled – studies ‘capture’ micro-sequences of interaction
• practical issues – babies are often asleep or being fed
• issue of intentionality – are imitative behaviours deliberate/conscious?
• some studies have failed to replicate earlier findings, eg Koepke et al (1983)
• research may be socially sensitive, eg implications for working mothers
• economic implications of research
• contribution to understanding the importance of care-giver infant interaction

Question 82

Use your knowledge of the effects of institutionalisation to advise Anca’s new
parents about what to expect

Answer 82

• delayed intellectual development/low IQ/problems with concentration – Anca may struggle
  more at school than other children/may not learn new behaviours, concepts as quickly
• disinhibited attachment – Anca may not know what counts as ‘appropriate’ behaviour towards
  strangers
• emotional development – Anca may experience more temper tantrums, etc.
• lack of internal working model – Anca may have difficulty interacting with peers, forming close
  relationships, etc.
• quasi-autism – Anca may have a problem understanding the meaning of social contexts, may
  display obsessional behaviour, etc.
• credit the idea that Anca may have been adopted before the age of 6 months and therefore any
  effects may not be as severe/long term had she been adopted later.
• credit the suggestion that effects may be reversed with sensitive parenting.

Question 83

Discuss the findings of research into cultural variations in attachment.

Answer 83

• Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) – credit knowledge of individual percentages and
  more general pattern of findings; more variation within countries than between countries
• Simonelli et al (2014) – lower rates of secure attachment and higher rates of insecure-avoidant
  in Italian study attributed to long working hours
• Kyoung (2005) – details of comparison between US and Korean children
• Sagi et al (1991) – high rates of insecure-resistant attachments in Israeli children.
• meta-analyses include very large samples increasing validity of findings
• discussion of more variation within countries than between countries
• samples in studies may not represent the culture as a whole
• strange situation may be biased towards American/British culture

Question 84

Outline one or more ways in which behaviourists treat phobias.

Answer 84

Systematic desensitisation:
* based on classical conditioning – counterconditioning
* relaxation training – fear and relaxation cannot coexist (reciprocal inhibition)
* formation of anxiety hierarchy
* gradual exposure (stepped approach) leading to eventual extinction.
Flooding:
* immediate exposure to phobic stimulus
* exhaustion of phobic response
* prevention of avoidance

Question 85

Outline and evaluate failure to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental
health as definitions of abnormality. Refer to the experiences of Rob in your answer.

Answer 85

Failure to function adequately:
* abnormality judged as inability to deal with the demands of everyday living
* behaviour is maladaptive, irrational or dangerous
* behaviour causes personal distress and distress to others.
Deviation from ideal mental health:
* absence of signs of mental health used to judge abnormality
* description of (Jahoda’s) criteria – accurate perception of reality; self-actualisation;
resistance to stress; positive attitude towards self; autonomy/independence; environmental
mastery
* the more criteria someone fails to meet, the more abnormal they are.

Failure to function adequately:
* evidence that Rob is not coping with everyday tasks – cannot complete homework; he is
untidy
* Rob is causing others’ distress – his parents and teachers
* personal distress – feelings of anxiety, he is frightened.
Deviation from ideal mental health:
* Rob’s perception of reality is not accurate – hearing voices
* voices are preventing Rob from fulfilling potential/achieving self-actualisation – may affect
his chances of going to university

Failure to function:
* recognises the patient’s perspective
* judging person as distressed or distressing relies on subjective assessment
* not all abnormal behaviour is associated with distress/failure to cope eg psychopathy
* not all maladaptive behaviour is an indicator of mental illness.
Deviation from ideal mental health:
* positive, holistic approach to diagnosis
* criteria for mental health are too demanding/unrealistic
* culture bias in some criteria, eg value placed on independence/autonomy
* use of evidence to support/challenge definitions
* comparison/overlap with other definitions – deviation from social norms, statistical
infrequency.