paper 2 questions

Question 1

2019 briefly outline how excitation and inhibition are involved in synaptic transmission

Answer 1

.to regulate cell or organ activity within the body and control vital physiological processes in the body
• to release hormones/chemical messengers from glands into the bloodstream which then bind with
specific receptors in order to regulate the activity of cells or organs in the body
• examples of specific hormones to illustrate effects such as adrenaline and fight or flight response
• reference to how imbalance in hormones might lead to dysfunction for example, high levels of cortisol
causing Cushing’s diseas

Question 2

outline two limitations of cognitive approach

Answer 2

• over-reliance on computer models
• focus on how rather than why a process might occur • relies on artificial testing

Question 3

how study might be improved by using a matched pairs design

Answer 3

• this will reduce possible effects of participant variables
• this increases the ability of the researcher to conclude that differences in results are due to different
conditions (not different people)

Question 4

2017 outline the fight of flight response

Answer 4

hypothalamus prepares the body for action/emergency response.
involves the release of adrenaline (from the adrenal gland/medulla).
Triggers/activates/switches from parasympathetic to sympathetic activity and back again.
direct effects of adrenaline, eg increase heart rate – constricts blood vessels, increasing rate of blood flow and raising blood pressure – diverts blood away from the skin, kidneys and digestive system – increases blood to brain and skeletal muscle – increases respiration and sweating.

Question 5

inference

Answer 5

make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed/going beyond the immediate research evidence.

Question 6

why stratisified

Answer 6

stratified sampling increases representation/generalisation by sampling many subsets of students
• stratified sampling reduces research bias as the subsets of students are selected randomly.

Question 7

why mean would be appropriate

Answer 7

• the mean can be said to be representative of all the data collected as it is calculated using all the individual values.
• the mean is the most sensitive measure of central tendency as it uses all the values in set of data.

Question 8

purpose of counter balancing

Answer 8

• it controls the impact of order effects (practice, fatigue or boredom).
• allows order effects to be distributed evenly across both conditions.
• making each condition of the IV occur as the first task and the second task equally.
• counterbalancing does not eliminate order effects which will be present because there are two
separate tasks to be completed by each person.

Question 9

2018 disced the contribution of pavlova research to out understanding pf human behaviour

Answer 9

Methodology: Pavlov demonstrated the importance of learning by association in his conditioning experiments – salivation in dogs; the experiments showed learning could be investigated experimentally and using non-human participants
 Theory: provided theories of learning and laws of learning – classical conditioning
 Application: provided therapies for the treatment of disorders such as phobias and addictions

 scientific methods led to raised status for psychology but also meant that non-observable behaviour could not be studied in this way
 therapeutic techniques in SD and flooding and aversion therapy have been successful in eliminating maladaptive behaviours in real life
 neglect of the whole person – especially in treatment strategies of aversion therapy/SD/flooding
 difficulties involved in extrapolation from animal research to human behaviours
 use of the Little Albert case
 issue of environmental determinism and lack of focus on free will
 comparison with other approaches such as SLT.

Question 10

why match on a characteristic

Answer 10

level of interest could affect their satisfaction scores so needs to be controlled; matching students’ levels of interest in business studies keeps this participant variable constant.

Question 11

problem in anylsisn qualitative data from questionire

Answer 11

 analysis of qualitative data relies on interpretation by the researcher which could be inaccurate/biased/subjective
MARK SCHEME – AS PSYCHOLOGY – 7181/2 – JUNE 2018
Marks for this question: AO2 = 1
1 mark for a question which would generate qualitative data: what did you like/dislike about the
online/classroom lessons?
Accept any appropriate question or item that generates qualitative data.
1 8 Briefly explain one problem the researcher might have in analysing the qualitative data collected from the questionnaires.
 qualitative data may not be easy to categorise/collate into a sensible number of answer types
 the researcher could be left with lots of individual responses that cannot be summarised.

Question 12

ethical issues in questionnaire

Answer 12

 the students should be treated with respect by explaining that their answers will be kept confidential  the students must be assured that they can withdraw their answers if they want to
 the students must be told exactly what the researcher was trying to find out about the relationship
between satisfaction and the way information was delivered.

Question 13

why median over mode

Answer 13

The median is more representative than the mode because the mode is at the top end of the set of scores, whereas more of the scores are numerically closer to the median.

Question 14

22 explain the process of synaptic transmission

Answer 14

electrical impulses (action potentials) reach the presynaptic terminal
• electrical impulses (action potentials) trigger release of neurotransmitters (or named example) from
synaptic vesicles
• neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft
• neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.

Question 15

outline what is meant by cog neuroscience

Answer 15

responsible for cognitive/mental/thinking processes
the use of scanning techniques
the study of neurotypical individuals to locate the physical basis of cognitive processes in the brain
use of examples.

Question 16

one strength of cog approach

Answer 16

• real life application, eg contributions to the field of AI; contribution to improving the reliability of eye witness testimony; contribution to effective treatments (CBT) for depression/phobias/OCD
• mainly uses experimental/objective/controlled methods to research so has scientific rigour
• comparison to other approaches, eg soft deterministic approach is more reasonable than the hard determinism of the behaviourist approach.

Question 17

why you would not be able to conclude a conclusion in cases

Answer 17

its a correlation
causation is not the same as correlation
a third factor could affect results

Question 18

how to obtain informed consent

Answer 18

tell the teachers they would need to complete meditation or healthy diet for a week
• tell them they would have their heart rate measured at the beginning and end of the week • explain they have the right to withdraw
• ask for agreement/obtain a signature.

Question 19

how matched pairs helps a research

Question 20

how a repeated measures helps a research

Answer 20

• this will reduce possible effects of participant variables
• this increases the ability of the researcher to conclude that differences in results are due to different
conditions (not different people).

Question 21

2019explain the function

Answer 21

to regulate cell or organ activity within the body and control vital physiological processes in the body
• to release hormones/chemical messengers from glands into the bloodstream which then bind with
specific receptors in order to regulate the activity of cells or organs in the body
• examples of specific hormones to illustrate effects such as adrenaline and fight or flight response
• reference to how imbalance in hormones might lead to dysfunction for example, high levels of cortisol
causing Cushing’s disease.

Question 22

describe and evaluate the biological approach in psychology

Answer 22

humans are viewed as biological beings and it is expected that behaviour will/can/should be explained using references to biology
• genetic basis of behaviour – genes, genotype and phenotype
• the human nervous system
• structure and function of the brain including localisation of brain functions and subsequent behaviours
• neurotransmitters and example(s) of how these affect behaviour
• evolution and the importance of natural selection.
Possible evaluation points:
• real life applications of the approach – the use of drugs to counteract neurotransmitter imbalance – examples of these. Benefits of these
• the scientific methods used by biologists/biopsychologists might reduce behaviours to unrealistic actions and therefore lose sight of the possible impact of factors such as cognition and culture on behaviour
• the danger of looking for biological cause of all behaviours has led to problems like the search for the ‘criminal gene’
• difficulty of separating the likely impact of both nature and nurture – the positive contributions of other approaches in psychology
• emphasis on scientific methods – rigour of experimentation, scanning techniques, twin and family studies. Relevant research examples to support this point

Question 23

2020 outline wundts method of introspections

Answer 23

• introspection is a systematic analysis of one’s own conscious experience
• experiences are analysed in terms of their component parts/reference to ‘structuralism’
• these parts are elements like sensation, emotional reactions etc
• people were trained to do this analysis to make the data objective rather than subjective
• people were presented with standardised sensory events like a ticking metronome and asked to report
their reactions.

Question 24

What somatic nervous system does

Answer 24

transmits sensory information from the body/sense receptors to the brain/central nervous system
• transmits information from the brain (via the spinal cord) to muscles/effectors to produce (voluntary)
movements
• the somatic nervous system integrates the brain with the outside world • some movements are involuntary such as in the reflex arc.

Question 25

Difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Answer 25

• the response is involuntary in CC but voluntary in OC
• responses are reinforced in OC but not in CC
• CC explains acquisition of response, OC explains maintenance of response
• CC is is learning by association between two stimuli in time, whereas operant conditioning is learning
by association between response and consequence’.

Question 26

explain why it was more appropriate to use the standard
deviation rather than the range.

Answer 26

• SD is not easily distorted by extreme scores (such as the anomalous score in Condition 1)
• SD takes into account the distance of each score from the mean, not just take the distance between
the highest and lowest scores
• SD uses every piece of data/value collected
• the comparison of the variations in performance would be more accurate.

Question 27

Discuss Wundt’s role in the emergence of psychology as a science.

Answer 27

• first to open a laboratory designated to the scientific study of psychological enquiry under controlled conditions facilitating accurate measurements and replication
• focus was on trying to understand psychological processes of perception etc and structuralism rather than philosophical or biological processes
• he later recognised that higher mental processes were difficult to study using his procedures and this encouraged others to look for more appropriate methods and techniques, paving the way for approaches such as scanning
• introspection still used today in areas such as therapy and studying emotional states demonstrating its value as one way mental processes can be investigated
• issues of determinism and predictability could be presented as a strength or limitation.

Question 28

Explain one strength and one limitation of using social learning theory to explain the
different attitudes of Steph’s and Georgie’s daughters.

Answer 28

Possible limitations:
SLT is deterministic with behaviours being shaped by our environment and role models rather than
empowering the individual with free will, suggesting that Steph’s and Georgie’s daughter’s behaviours
are determined and thus they are not able to change their attitudes
SLT focuses on nurture which may assign blame to role models, suggesting Georgie’s attitude may
have shaped her daughter’s behaviour which could cause Georgie to feel guilty/assign guilt
SLT is too simplistic, ignoring the influence of hormones or genetics on behaviour therefore time could
be wasted trying to shape Georgie’s daughter’s attitude with positive role models (teachers/peers).
The validity of the research supporting SLT can be questioned e.g., the artificial environment in
Bandura’s research does not provide a relevant basis to explain Steph and Georgie’s daughter’s
behaviour.

Question 29

n what ways might the biological approach explain the different attitudes of Steph’s and
Georgie’s daughters to their schoolwork?

Answer 29

Possible content:
Steph’s and Georgie’s daughters’ different responses to their schoolwork may arise from their differing
genotypes
Steph’s daughter may have inherited genes from her mother which make her more resilient/resistant
to stress, etc. The different set of genes Georgie’s daughter received from her mother may account for
the different attitudes the girls have to their schoolwork
differences in neurochemistry may cause Steph’s daughter to receive higher rewards for succeeding
in her schoolwork than Georgie’s daughter or may make Georgie’s daughter receive higher levels of
anxiety

Question 30

Outline and briefly discuss cognitive neuroscience.

Answer 30

cognitive neuroscience aims to explore the neurobiological basis of thought processes and disorders
cognitive neuroscience has emerged with improvements in technology such as fMRI and PET scans
cognitive science was formally formed in MIT in 1956 and cognitive neuroscience was coined by
George Miller and Michael Gazzaniga in the 1970s

Possible discussion points:
more scientific/objective in research study
nature/nurture debate – cognitive neuroscience has demonstrated the brain’s plasticity throughout life
supporting the role of experience
free will/determinism debate – cognitive neuroscience demonstrates the role of experience in shaping
the brain showing biology is not destiny
research studies identifying neurological basis of mental processes, eg Tulving (1994) PET scan study
on memory, Burnett et al. (2009) neurological network associated with guilt
provided neurobiological basis of certain psychological disorders (eg role of the parahippocampal
gyrus in OCD) resulting in the development of new therapeutics and removing blame and stigma
ethics, eg controversial use of mind mapping for lie detection in courts

Question 31

Outline the difference between endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers.
Use examples in your answer.

Answer 31

Possible content:
endogenous pacemakers are internal whereas exogenous zeitgebers are external
endogenous pacemakers are body clocks which regulate biological rhythm whereas exogenous
zeitgebers are cues that entrain our biological rhythms
examples used to illustrate the difference between the two influencers, eg the effects of the SCN
(endogenous pacemaker) as opposed to light (exogenous zeitgeber).

Question 32

iscuss research into plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma. Refer
to the views of the teacher and Xavier in your answer.

Answer 32

Possible content:
brain plasticity is the ability of the brain to modify the structure and function based on experience
functional recovery is where the brain recovers abilities previously lost due to brain injury
neuronal unmasking – activation of ‘dormant’ synapses to compensate for damaged areas of the brain
structural changes supporting neuronal unmasking such as axonal sprouting, reformation of blood
vessels, denervation super-sensitivity and recruitment of homologous areas
knowledge of relevant studies

Possible application:
research supports Xavier’s belief that young brains are more plastic – neural reorganisation is greater
in children than adults
full recovery is not passive unlike what Xavier suggested, it depends on the extent of the damage and
on various internal and external factors over time
as the teacher suggested recovery is not always complete (eg the man who cycled without a helmet)
and depends on the extent and location of damage and the level of subsequent care (eg
physiotherapy)
loss of the man’s speech could have been due to damage to Broca’s area.

Possible discussion:
evidence from case studies; eg E.B. Danelli et al. (2013)
evidence from animal studies; eg Hubel & Wiesel (1963) and discussion of the limitations of these
the influence of variables factors affecting recovery after trauma such as educational level/cognitive
reserve; eg Schneider et al. (2014), age; eg Elbert et al. (2001), Corkin et al. (1989), Huttenlocher,
(2002), Plata et al. (2008), Bezzola, et al. (2012), gender; eg Ratcliffe et al. (2007), or physical
exhaustion/stress/alcohol; eg Fleet & Heilman (1986)
experiential factors which may be used to enhance plasticity and functional recovery such as
meditation, learning new skills, playing video games, physiotherapy, etc
methodological issues and their implications.

Question 33

Explain why a repeated measures design was more appropriate than an independent
groups design

Answer 33

Possible content:
a repeated measures design would control for individual differences, eg level of stress, relaxation
methods, fitness levels, personality, attitude to sport, etc
so, the psychologist can be more certain that any difference in stress level between the two conditions
is due to running the 2 km run at breaktime rather than due to other participant variables.

Question 34

Explain one strength and one limitation of collecting quantitative data

Answer 34

Possible content:
quantitative data is straightforward to analyse so the effects of the 2 km breaktime run on stress levels
can be easily assessed
quantitative data is too restrictive to assess stress levels as the feeling/type/duration/context of stress
is not given, decreasing the validity of the data

Question 35

Explain one limitation of using the range to represent the spread of stress ratings

Answer 35

Possible content:
these range values only take the two extreme stress ratings into account
these range values are not calculated using each individual stress rating
these range values can be distorted by outliers, e.g. it could be the case that most students in
condition A had a stress ratings of 4 but one individual hated running and so reported a stress rating of
10 in this condition, this could result in the range of 6 as shown but would not represent the spread of
the data collected.

Question 36

Briefly explain one reason why research should be peer reviewed.

Answer 36

to reduce chances of flawed/unscientific research being published and therefore treated as ‘fact’ and
misinforming the public
to improve quality of published reports by suggesting amendments or further control/extension work.

Question 37

ntify two ethical issues in the design and conduct of psychological research.
In each case, explain how the issue you have identified could be dealt with.

Answer 37

nformed consent – participants should be given a consent form including all the details of the study so
they can make an informed decision as to whether they wish to participate; for children under 16 years
their parent/guardian needs to sign on their behalf; presumptive consent/retrospective consent
deception – fully debrief participants at the end of the study and make aware of the true aims of the
study; participants should be given the right to withdraw their data from the study
protection from harm – reassurance provided about their behaviour/performance in the study (debrief);
counselling provided if necessary; fully debrief participants at the end of the study and make aware of
the true aims of the study; participants should be given the right to withdraw their data from the study
privacy & confidentiality – protect any personal details collected; maintain anonymity by using
pseudonyms/initials/numbers when referring to participants.

Question 38

Discuss self-actualisation and/or conditions of worth in explaining human behaviour.

Answer 38

self-actualisation concerns psychological growth, fulfilment and satisfaction in life and is the final stage
in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
* psychological issues are thought to arise as a direct result of conditions of worth, which are constraints
an individual believes are put upon them by significant others that they deem necessary to gain
positive regard
* Rogers believed that therapists should provide clients with unconditional positive regard to help
resolve conditions of worth and guide clients towards self-actualisation, focusing on the authentic self

• discussion of research evidence which supports the role of conditions of worth, eg Harter et al. (1996)
• comparison of conditions of worth with alternative explanations of psychological issues, eg
  genetics/neurochemistry/psychodynamic theories, etc
• discussion regarding methodology and lack of scientific evidence for self-actualisation/conditions of
  worth with most studies utilising qualitative methods and rejecting scientific methodology
• counterarguments about the strengths of rich qualitative data and validity/discussion of Q-sort
• discussion of the oversimplification of self-actualisation and conditions of worth, eg it does not explain
  self-destructive behaviours, pessimism, etc
• discussion of real world application – counselling
• discussion of ethics of providing unconditional positive regard
• discussion of cultural differences

Question 39

Which of the following neurons carries electrical impulses towards the brain?

Answer 39

D – Sensory neuron

Question 40

Describe the divisions of the nervous system

Answer 40

• the nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems
• the CNS comprises the brain and spinal cord
• the peripheral nervous system is further divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic
  nervous system (ANS)
• the somatic nervous system consists of sensory and motor neurons to carry sensory and motor
  information to and from the CNS and also enables reflex actions
• the ANS acts largely unconsciously/involuntary
• the ANS is divided into the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous
  system (PNS)
• the SNS prepares us for flight or fight
• the PNS balances the sympathetic nervous system providing ‘rest and digest’ functions.

Question 41

Discuss localisation of function in the brain.

Answer 41

• concept of functional localisation and origins from phrenology
• basic neuroanatomical organisation – concepts of hemispheric lateralisation and contralateral
  organisation
• localisation of the motor, somatosensory, visual, auditory and language centres
• outline of functions assigned to motor, somatosensory, visual, auditory and language centres
• gender differences in neuroanatomical localisation of function, eg Harasty et al. (1997)
• differences in localisation of function based on left/right-handedness.
• research evidence to support localisation of function, eg Phineas Gage, HM, Tan/Leborge, etc and
  evidence from brain scanning studies
• challenges to localisation of function, eg holistic theory, equipotentiality theory – Lashley’s work with
  rats, issue of plasticity – case study EB, Dronkers et al. (2007), etc
• discussion of gender differences, beta bias and androcentrism in research
• discussion of individual differences
• issue of reductionism
• methodological critique of evidence – issues of generalisation from animal research and case studies
  and issues of baseline tasks in imaging studies.

Question 42

Explain why the researcher used a controlled observation and a standardised script in this
study.

Answer 42

when they arrived, providing a high level of control
* without using a standardised script, the researcher’s welcome may vary causing unintentional bias, eg
may use more child-friendly vocabulary which may make the child less anxious and thus more
sociable, etc
* using a controlled observation helps to reduce extraneous variables which may have an impact on the
social behaviour of the children, affecting the validity of the study.

Question 43

Explain one strength and one limitation of using time sampling for this observation.

Answer 43

• time sampling may be easier to manage as there are likely to be many social behaviours occurring
  throughout the set observation time
• time sampling is most appropriate for recording ongoing behaviours that are likely to occur in a social
  setting, eg conversations or playing together.

time sampling may not be representative of social behaviours as some social behaviours that
3-year-old children may display may be missed, eg a child may be playing independently when the
observer is noting the behaviour, but then sharing their toys or talking to another child outside of the
set observation time frame

Question 44

Explain how the reliability of the controlled observation could be assessed through
inter-observer reliability.

Answer 44

• two observers would use same behavioural categories/discuss and agree on an interpretation of each
  of the social behaviours in the category system
• two observers would make independent observations/tallies (of the same child at the same time/the 5-
  minute sessions are filmed and each observer watches and records the data for each film)
• the two observers’ tally charts would be compared to check for agreement/calculate the correlation
  between the recordings of the two observers to determine the level of inter-observer reliability
• researchers generally accept +0.8 correlation as a reasonable degree of reliability.

Question 45

Explain one reason why collecting quantitative data could reduce the validity of this study

Answer 45

• social behaviours are complex and contextual, quantifying them will lose detail
• loss of detail may mean important contextual information is missing, eg sarcastic smile as opposed to
  a friendly smile
• by quantifying the social behaviours, the relative importance of the social behaviour or combination of
  behaviours may be lost reducing validity.

Question 46

Which method of studying the brain would most accurately identify specific brain areas
activated during a cognitive task?

Answer 46

C Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI

Question 47

Using an example of a gland and hormone, outline the function of the endocrine
system. Do not use the adrenal gland/adrenaline as your example.

Answer 47

• the endocrine system helps to regulate the activity of cells and organs in the body
• the endocrine system communicates chemical messages to the organs of the body
• the thyroid gland produces thyroxine, which increases heart rate and metabolic rates
• the pineal gland produces melatonin, which may help regulate the wake-sleep cycle
• the anterior pituitary gland secretes Luteinizing hormone (LH) & Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH),
  which stimulate ovaries to produce oestrogen & progesterone
• the anterior pituitary gland secretes LH & FSH, which stimulate the testes to produce testosterone &
  sperm
• the posterior pituitary releases oxytocin, which stimulates the uterus to contract during labour and also
  plays a role in bonding
• the pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon, which help regulate blood sugar levels.

Question 48

Which of the following is not a role of peer review in the scientific process?

Answer 48

To ensure only significant results are published

Question 49

Explain one strength of using a matched-pairs design rather than a repeated measures
design.

Answer 49

in a matched pairs design participants only take part in a single condition so order effects are less of a
problem than in a repeated measures design, improving the validity of the results
* in a matched pairs design participants only take part in a single condition so demand characteristics
are less of a problem than in a repeated measures design as they are less likely to guess the aims of
the study

Question 50

Outline the behaviourist approach. Compare the behaviourist approach with the biological
approach

Answer 50

 basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach
 the concept/theory of classical conditioning
 Pavlov’s research
 the concept/theory of operant conditioning
 Skinner’s research

 focus on environmental causes and experience vs focus on internal influences (nature vs
nurture). Discussion of the interactionist approach
 approaches to treatment (eg flooding vs drug therapy)
 use of scientific methods
 the issue of determinism
 the issue of reductionism
 use of animal experiments and extrapolation
 contrasting implications (eg blame, responsibility and social stigma).

Question 51

Give one difference between the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous
system.

Answer 51

the autonomic nervous system is involuntary whereas the somatic nervous system is under
conscious control.
 ANS controls smooth muscles and glands whereas the SNS controls skeletal muscles.

Question 52

Explain one reason why the mean is the most appropriate measure of central tendency for
this set of data.

Answer 52

 there are no extreme values (not skewed) so distortion will not be a problem with this data set
 the mean takes into account/uses all the data so is more representative of the data than other
measures
 data is time and is therefore interval data.

Question 53

According to the biological approach, which of the following statements is TRUE?

Answer 53

A Environment may influence the expression of the genotype.

Question 54

Briefly describe one role of the unconscious according to the psychodynamic approach.

Answer 54

• traumatic (repressed) memories drive our behaviour
• defence mechanisms, eg repression, denial, displacement, are used unconsciously to reduce anxiety
• the underlying unconscious drive is sexual
• if a conflict is experienced during the development through the psychosexual stages, eg oral, anal,
  phallic, latent, genital, a fixation (that resides in their unconscious mind) can affect an adult’s
  personality

Question 55

Briefly explain one strength and one limitation of the psychodynamic approach.

Answer 55

• psychotherapy as a treatment for mental health issues
• explanatory power to many psychological topics
• socially sensitive, eg mental health issues may be blamed on parents
• testing of unconscious concepts is unfalsifiable
• lack of scientific rigour
• subjectivity – unconscious thoughts can only be inferred from behaviour or reported
  thoughts/experiences
• use of evidence to support or contradict the psychodynamic approach, eg studies into the
  effectiveness of psychotherapy, eg De Maat, et al. (2009), case studies of people who are unable to
  recall upsetting events, eg Gagnepain, et al. (2014) on suppression, Little Hans.

Question 56

Explain the difference between infradian rhythms and ultradian rhythms.

Answer 56

the rhythms have different durations: infradian rhythms have a duration of over 24hrs whereas
ultradian rhythms are cycles that last less than 24hrs.

Question 57

Explain how Zapurpain might affect the process of synaptic transmission through
inhibition.

Answer 57

• Zapurpain mimics the effect of inhibitory neurotransmitters, stimulation of postsynaptic receptors by an
  inhibitory neurotransmitter result in inhibition (hyperpolarisation) of the postsynaptic membrane
• when an inhibitory neurotransmitter binds to the post-synaptic receptors it makes the post-synaptic cell
  less likely to fire (IPSP)
• Summation – if inhibitory inputs are higher than excitatory they can cancel out excitation and inhibit an
  action potential occurring/Zapurpain would decrease the overall activity
• Zapurpain would make the post-synaptic cell less likely to fire
• reducing brain activity may lead to reduced pain

Question 58

Explain one difference and one similarity between Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI) and Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) as ways of studying the brain

Answer 58

• fMRIs have poor temporal resolution whereas ERPs have good temporal resolution
• fMRIs have good spatial resolution whereas ERPs have poor spatial resolution
• fMRIs and ERPs are both non-invasive and do not use radiation (risk free)
• fMRIs and ERPs both measure brain activity linked to events/tasks.

Question 59

Explain how the psychologist could have matched pupils on their typical recreational
screen time across the experimental conditions.

Answer 59

• the psychologist could use a questionnaire/interview/ask parents to report/pupils to self-report
• examples of questions given/data obtained on average/daily recreational screen time use
• pupils with similar recreational screen time use would be paired
• one pupil from each pair would be (randomly) placed in Group A and the other in Group B.

Question 60

Compare the humanistic approach with the psychodynamic approach.

Answer 60

determinism – the humanistic approach assumes people have free choice over their behaviour,
whereas the psychodynamic approach assumes that behaviour is determined by unconscious factors
(beyond conscious control)
* nature/nurture – the humanistic approach assumes behaviour is affected by desire to self-actualise
(nature) and our experience can provide barriers to this through conditions of worth and varying
experience of conditional positive regard (nurture). Likewise, the psychodynamic approach assumes
behaviour is driven by unconscious forces, eg id/ego/superego dynamics (nature) but our coping
mechanisms such as defence mechanisms arise from experience (nurture)
* methodology – both are much less scientific than other approaches (but the psychodynamic approach
assumes that some aspects of behaviour can be investigated scientifically)
* therapy – Rogers believed that counselling (utilising unconditional positive regard) can be used to help
clients solve their problems, overcome conditions of worth and enable their potential for self-
actualisation, whereas Freud believed that psychoanalysis can lead to improvements in clients
through psychotherapy.

Question 61

Describe the structure and function of a neuron

Answer 61

• Neurons enable communication within the nervous system
• the cell body (soma) contains the genetic material
• branch-like dendrites extend from the cell body (often with dendritic spines)
• dendrites carry functional information towards the cell body
• dendrites can receive information from other neurons
• axons carry messages away from the cell body
• axons can be myelinated to increase speed of nerve transmission (saltatory conduction between
  nodes of Ranvier)
• terminal boutons are at the end of axons, these make synaptic connections with other cells
• axon terminals contain neurotransmitters.

Question 62

Discuss ways of studying the brain.

Answer 62

• post-mortem examinations study the brain after death to try and correlate structural
  abnormalities to behavioural changes
• EEGs use electrodes fixed to a participant’s scalp which detect neuronal activity directly below
  where they are placed
• ERPs use electrodes fixed to a participant’s scalp to detect neuronal activity in response to a
  stimulus introduced by the researcher
• fMRI use magnetic field and radio waves to detect changes in blood oxygenation and flow as a
  result of neural activity. It gives a moving picture of the brain; activity in regions of interest can
  be compared between a specific activity and a baseline task.
  Possible discussion:
• fMRI data is complex and can be affected by the baseline task used and how the data is
  interpreted
• fMRIs have low temporal resolution and research is expensive leading to low sample sizes
  which can reduce the validity of studies
• post-mortem examinations require special permission to be conducted which often leads to
  small sample sizes
• post-mortem examinations can be affected by changes which occur during/after death
• post-mortem examinations enable deeper regions of the brain to be investigated than
  non-invasive techniques
• EEGs and ERPs are cheaper than fMRIs so enable larger sample sizes which can increase the
  validity of the data obtained
• EEGs and ERPs have poorer spatial resolution than fMRIs
• unlike post-mortem examinations, neuroimaging techniques allow the active brain to be
  investigated during specific tasks/activities
• research studies used to evaluate techniques described

Question 62

Explain one strength of collecting quantitative data in this study.

Answer 62

• would enable the researcher to easily analyse the sleep data
• would enable the researcher to perform a statistical test to enable conclusions about how beliefs about
  sleep affect feelings of restedness.

Question 63

Explain one limitation of assessing sleep quality using a rating scale of 1–10.

Answer 63

• sleep quality is subjective and so may be interpreted differently by each student
• a rating of 3, for example, might mean something different for different students
• students are not able to explain their rating

Question 64

Outline and evaluate the humanistic approach. Refer to Tatiana’s behaviour in your
answer.

Answer 64

• limited application of the humanistic approach due to its abstract concepts
• the humanistic approach is not reductionist which may improve validity
• humanistic approach lacks empirical evidence to support its claims
• consideration of influence eg. counselling, theoretical influence etc.
• discussion regarding whether behaviour is due to free will or environmental factors
• credit use of evidence to discuss the different explanations when made relevant to the stem
• comparison with alternative approaches in terms of evaluation and/or application.

Question 64

Outline one reason why it was appropriate to conduct a correlation rather than an
experiment in this case.

Answer 64

• it would be difficult to dictate the number of hours the students should sleep
• it may be more ethical to conduct a correlation rather than restrict how many hours each student slept.

Question 65

Explain the process of synaptic transmission.

Answer 65

• electrical impulses (action potentials) reach the presynaptic terminal
• electrical impulses (action potentials) trigger release of neurotransmitters (or named
  example)
• neurotransmitters cross the synapse from vesicles
• neurotransmitters combine with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
• stimulation of postsynaptic receptors by neurotransmitters result in either excitation
  (depolarisation) or inhibition (hyperpolarisation) of the postsynaptic membrane.

Question 66

Using your knowledge of the functions of Broca’s area and the motor cortex,
describe the problems that Lotta’s grandmother is likely to experience

Answer 66

• as a consequence of damage to Broca’s area, Lotta’s grandmother is likely to suffer from
  language/speech problems (Broca’s aphasia)
• it will affect her language production (but not her understanding)
• Lotta’s grandmother will only be able to talk in short meaningful sentences which take great
  effort
• speech lacks fluency/difficulty with certain words which help sentences function (e.g. ‘it’ and
  ‘the’)
• as a consequence of damage to the motor cortex, Lotta’s grandmother is likely to suffer
  from loss of muscle function/paralysis
• motor impairments on the right side of the body

Question 67

Using your knowledge of plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma,
explain why Lotta might be wrong.

Answer 67

• Lotta’s grandmother might still be capable of functional reorganisation/plasticity
• functional compensation by other undamaged areas
• although she is older her brain might still be able to form new connections (axons and
  dendrites) between neurons
• neuronal loss may be compensated for by regeneration (axon sprouting)
• denervation supersensitivity to reduce the severity/extent of Lotta’s grandmother’s
  impairment
• plasticity allows the brain to cope better with ‘indirect’ effects of brain damage resulting from
  inadequate blood supply following a stroke
• references to increased brain stimulation of the opposite hemisphere, physiotherapy, etc to
  enhance Lotta’s grandmother’s recovery
• reference to relevant studies on plasticity, eg suggesting women recover quicker than men
  would be an effective way to illustrate key points, if directly linked to Lotta’s grandmother’s
  recovery.

Question 68

Explain one disadvantage of obtaining quantitative data in this study

Answer 68

lacks detail

Question 69

Outline and evaluate one or more ways of studying the brain.

Answer 69

fMRI – Uses magnetic field and radio waves to monitor blood flow; it measures the change
in the energy released by haemoglobin, reflecting activity of the brain (oxygen
consumption) to give a moving picture of the brain; activity in regions of interest can be
compared during a base line task and during a specific activity
* EEGs – electrodes are put on the scalp and detect neuronal activity directly below where
they are placed; differing numbers of electrodes can be used depending on focus of the
research
* ERPs – electrodes are put on the scalp and detect neuronal activity (directly below where
they are placed) in response to a stimulus introduced by the researcher
* post-mortem examinations – brain is examined after death to try and correlate structural
abnormalities/damage to behaviour

fMRI captures dynamic brain activity as opposed to MRI/post-mortem examinations which
purely show physiology
* interpretation of fMRI is complex and is affected by temporal resolution, biased
interpretation and by the baseline task used
* fMRI research is expensive leading to reduced sample sizes which negatively impact the
validity of the research
* EEGs and ERPs are cheaper so can be more widely used in research
* EEGs and ERPs have poor spatial resolution
* post-mortem examinations may lack validity due to small sample sizes (as special
permission needs to be granted) and also due to neuronal changes during and after death
* advantages of investigating brain activity in humans rather than generalising from animal
lesion/single electrode recording studies (for validity and ethical reasons)
* comparisons between techniques is an effective source of evaluation marks
* research studies are creditworthy as long as they are effectively used to evaluate the
technique(s) described.

Question 70

Explain why a histogram would not be an appropriate way of displaying the means
shown in Table 1.

Answer 70

explaining either you need to have continuous data or scores for each participant in
order to draw a histogram.

identifying that the data represents two separate conditions (with music/without music).
Accept categorical/nominal.