forensics ao1

Question 1

what is offender profiling

Answer 1

Also known as ‘criminal profiling’, a behavioural and analytical tool used by professionals to help accurately predict and profile the characteristics and traits of an unknown criminal.

Question 2

aim of offender profiling

Answer 2

narrow the field of inquiry and the list of likely suspects. Professional profilers may be called upon to assist police officers in their investigation, usually during high profile murder cases. The methods employed may vary, but the general premise includes, careful scrutiny of the crime scene and analysis pf the evidence (including witness reports) in order to generate a hypothesis about the probable characteristics of the offender (personality, age, background, occupation, marital status etc.)​

Question 3

top down approach why it was made

Answer 3

The top-down approach was created in the United States following the work of the FBI in the 1970s. The FBIs behavioural sciences unit conducted extensive interviews with 36 sexually motivated killers such as Charles Manson, Ted Bundy.

Question 4

aim of top down

Answer 4

The aim of these interviews was to create a database of common characteristics, patterns or trends in order to create templates for offenders. This is also known as the typology approach, where profilers who use this method will have pre-existing templates in their mind and then will match what is known about the current crime and offender and fit them to a pre-existing template that the FBI has developed. ​
The FBI came up with a template of two different types of offenders: organised and disorganised and this classification informs the subsequent police investigation​

Question 5

top down a[[roach

Answer 5

Profilers start with a pre-established typology (based on the interviews)​
They work down from this in order to assign offenders to one of two categories, based on a signature ‘way of working’ - Modus operandi​

Question 6

four stages of offender profiling

Answer 6

data assimilation
crime scene classification
crime reconstruction
profile generation

Question 7

data assimilaation

Answer 7

Reviewing all the information e.g. Police reports, crime scenes, photographs etc

Question 8

crime scene classification

Answer 8

decide whether the crime is Organised and Disorganised​

Question 9

crime reconstruction

Answer 9

Make hypotheses about what happened based on victim behaviour, crime sequences.​

Question 10

profile generation

Answer 10

Present the profile hypotheses e.g. physical characteristics, behavioural habits, background, IQ etc​

Question 11

organised offender characteristics

Answer 11

vidence of planning and control with little evidence left behind. The crime appears to have a detached surgical precision.

he victim appears to be chosen or even known by the offender. The offender may have a ‘type’

ikely to have a full time job, skilled professional job. They are socially and sexually competent. Usually married and might even have kids.

Average or above average intelligence. They often follow the crime investigation.

Likely to have experienced inconsistent discipline

Question 12

disorganised offender characteristics

Answer 12

Little evidence of planning, signs of spontaneity, evidence likely to be left behind. Spur of the moment crime.

he victim appears random. Often leave body at the crime scene.

Unlikely to have a job/ an unskilled worker. History of sexual dysfunction, failed relationships, socially awkward. Tend to live alone and close to the crime scene.

Below average intelligence

Likely to have experiences harsh discipline

Question 13

bottom up approach

Answer 13

The profile is ‘data driven’ and emerges when the investigator rigorously scrutinises the details of the offence/crime scene.​
The aim is the generate a picture of the offender – their likely characteristics. Routine behaviour, social background – through systematic analysis of evidence at the crime scene.​
David Canter has attempted to move offender profiling into a more scientific and empirical domain, in comparison to the top-down approaches.​
It is much more rooted in psychological theory than the top-down approach​
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Question 14

what is investigative psychology

Answer 14

Applying statistical procedures, alongside psychological theory, to the analysis of crime scene evidence. The aim is to establish patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur across crime scenes. This is used to develop a statistical database which then acts as a baseline for comparison. ​
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Details of offences can then be compared to this database to reveal important details about the offender. It can also be used to determine whether different crimes are committed by the same person.

Question 15

Interpersonal consistency:

Answer 15

how the offender treated the victim may be characteristic of their approach to that race/culture/sexual orientation/gender. E.g. While some rapists are very aggressive and try to humiliate their victims, other may be more ‘apologetic’. This may tell the police something about how the offender related to women more generally.

Question 16

Spatial consistency

Answer 16

the offender is likely to commit somewhere that they are comfortable in - somewhere they know well. e.g. a murder may be committed en route to a friend’s house or near their workplace.

Question 17

Forensic awareness

Answer 17

Describes those individuals who have been the subject of police interrogation before; their behaviour may denote how mindful they are of ‘covering their tracks’.

Question 18

Criminal Career:

Answer 18

Any past criminal experience they may have had.

Question 19

Criminal Characteristics:

Answer 19

Controlling, quiet, nervous, polite.

Question 20

geographical profiling

Answer 20

Geographical profiling attempts to make predictions about offenders based on information about the location and the timing of offences.

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The assumption is that serial offenders will restrict their crime to geographical areas they are familiar with, and so understanding the special pattern of their behaviour provides investigators with a ‘centre of gravity’ which is likely to include the offenders base (often the middle of the spatial pattern). It may also help the investigators make educated guesses about where the offender is likely to strike next – called the ‘jeopardy surface’. ​

Question 21

canters circle theory

Answer 21

Canter’s circle theory proposed two models of offender behaviour:​
The marauder – those who operate in close proximity to their home base​
The commuter – those who are likely to travel a distance away from their usual residence​
​

Question 22

atavistic form

Answer 22

activity to the fact that offenders are genetic throwbacks or a primitive sub-species ill-suited to conforming to the rules of modern society. Such individuals are distinguishable by particular facial and cranial characteristics.

Question 23

lombroso

Answer 23

gathered empirical evidence from post-mortem examinations of criminals and took measurements of the faces of living criminals. He examined the facial and cranial featured of both living and dead, proposed that the atavistic form was associated with a number of physical anomalies which were key indicators of criminality. ​
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In a study of 383 dead convicted Italian criminals and 3839 living ones, he found that 40% of criminal acts are committed by people with atavistic characteristics. ​

Question 24

cranial characteristics and other characteristics of a criminal

Answer 24

narrow, sloping brow, strong prominent jaw, high cheekbones, facial asymmetr

dark skin, extra toes, nipples or fingers​

Question 25

murder characteristics

Answer 25

bloodshot eyes, curly hair, long ears

Question 26

sexual deviant chaarteristic

Answer 26

glinting eyes, swollen, fleshy lips and projecting ears

Question 27

fraudsters characteristics

Answer 27

thin and ‘reedy’ lips

Question 28

twins studies

Answer 28

The first criminal twin study was conducted by Johannes Lange in 1930 who investigated 13 MZ and 17 DZ twins where one of the twins in each pair had served some time in prison. Lange found that 10 of the MZ twins but only 2 of the DZ twins had a co-twin who was also in prison. Lange concluded that genetic factors must play a role in offending behaviour. ​
In 1993, psychologist Raine found a 52% concordance rate for offender behaviour in MZ twins and only a 21% in DZ twins – again suggesting that genes do play a crucial role in determining whether someone becomes an offender or not. ​
Christiansen (1977) studied over 3500 twin pairs in Denmark and found concordance rates for offender behav

Question 29

adoption studies

Answer 29

Crowe (1972) found that adopted children who had a biological parent with a criminal record had a 50% risk of having a criminal record by the age of 18, whereas adopted children whose mother didn’t have a criminal record only had a 5% risk

Question 30

candidate genes

Answer 30

Jari Tiihonen et al (2014) carried out a genetic analysis of almost 900 offenders. They revealed abnormalities of two genes which may be associated with violent crimes including, the MAOA gene (responsible for controlling dopamine and serotonin in the brain and has been linked to aggressive behaviour) and CDH13 (that has been linked to substance abuse and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ADHD). Within the Finnish sample, individuals with this high-risk combination were 13 times more likely to have a history of violent behaviour. However, this research is still early days – and so far, has not been replicated.

Question 31

diathesis stress

Answer 31

If genetics do have some influence on offending, it seems likely that this is at least partly moderated or influenced by the environment.​
The diathesis-stress model is applied throughout psychology including schizophrenia. ​
So, the likelihood of becoming a criminal may be influenced through the combination of genetic predisposition and an environmental trigger – for example, being raised in a dysfunctional environment (childhood abuse/maltreatment or having a criminal role model.

Question 32

mirror neurones

Answer 32

special brain cells called mirror neurons distributed in several areas of the brain. Mirror neurons are unique because they fire both in response to personal action and in response to actions of other people. The neurons may be involved in social cognition, allowing us to interpret intention and emotions/empathise with others. ​
Recent research suggests that criminals with APD can experience empathy, but they do so more sporadically than the rest of us. Christian Keyser’s et al. (2011) found that only when criminals were asked to empathise (with a person depicted on film experiencing pain) did their empathy reaction (controlled by mirror neurons in the brain) activate. This suggests that APD individuals are not totally without empathy but may have a neural ‘switch’ that can be turned on and off, unlike the ‘normal’ brain which can always empathise

Question 33

serotonin

Answer 33

Low levels of serotonin can lead to impulsive aggression ​
Serotonin helps regulate the functioning of the pre-frontal cortex ​
Low levels of serotonin can lead to greater impulsivity

Question 34

noradrenaline

Answer 34

Too high can lead to aggressive behaviours and violence ​
Noradrenaline is involved in the fight or flight response in determining of threats are real or perceived and providing an appropriate response. So, it can impair decision making

Question 35

what Raine ddi

Answer 35

conducted many studies of the APD brain, and he reported that there are several dozen brain imaging studies which demonstrate that individuals with antisocial personalities have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex. This is the area of the brain which regulates emotional behaviour. ​
Alongside this, Raine et al (2000) found an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in the prefrontal cortex of people with APD compared to controls (underdeveloped).​

Question 36

prefrontal cortex

Answer 36

The volume of the prefrontal grey matter in the brains of 21 people with APD and 21 without APD (control group) was measured using an MRI scan (magnetic resonance). These people show less emotion or feelings for others. All 42 participants had their autonomic activity measured through the measuring of their heart rate and skin conductance while they were put into a stressful situation through videotaping them talking about their faults. ​
A reduced amount of grey matter (11%) was found in the prefrontal area for the APD group in comparison to the control group. The APD group also showed a reduced autonomic response during the stressful situation.​

Question 37

Differential Association theory

Answer 37

This theory of offender behaviour proposed that people learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour through association and interaction with different people ​
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Hence the name ‘differential association’

Question 38

Edwin Sutherland

Answer 38

set himself the task of developing a set of scientific principles which could explain all types of offending – that is, ‘the conditions which are said to cause crime should be present when crime is present and should be absent when crime is absent’.​
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His theory is designed to discriminate between individuals who become criminals and those who do not, regardless of their class or background ​

Question 39

Crime as a learned behaviour​

Answer 39

Sutherland believed that offending behaviour may be acquired in the same way as any other behaviour, through the process of learning. This occurs most often through interactions with significant others that the child associates with. This can include the family, the peer group etc

Question 40

Pro-criminal attitudes

Answer 40

When a person is socialised into a group, they are exposed to the group’s values and attitudes towards the law and what is right and wrong. Some of these values will be pro-crime (so agreeing with going against the law) and others will be anti-crime (disagreeing with breaking the law). Sutherland argues that if the number of pro-criminal attitudes a person acquires outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes, they will go on to offend.​
The learning process is the same for learning criminality or conforming to the law.

Question 41

Learning criminal acts

Answer 41

In addition to being exposed to pro-criminal attitudes, an individuals may also learn specific techniques for committing a crime which makes them more likely to be an offender. This might for example, include how to break into someone’s home through a locked window, or how to disable a cars alarm system before stealing it. ​
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Sutherland therefore proposes a theory which suggests how crime may ‘breed’ amongst specific social groups and communities but also why offenders released from prison are likely to reoffend. It is reasonable to assume that whilst inside prison, inmates will learn the specific techniques of offending from one another such as more experiences offenders who they may then be eager to practice from upon their release. This learning process therefore occurs through observational learning and imitation or direct lessons from criminal peers. ​

Question 42

The Cambridge study

Answer 42

This is shown to be the case by Osborne and West (1982) as they found that 40% of the sons of convicted criminals also had convictions by the age of 18, whereas only 13% of sons of non-criminal fathers had a conviction.​
This is also supported by the Cambridge Study in delinquency development. However, this pattern could also be explained by genetic factors.​
Furthermore, evidence suggests that criminality is concentrated in a small number of families. For example, Walmsley et al. (1992) found that 1/3 of the prison population in the UK also had relatives in prison too. This, again, could be interpreted as support for the influence of genetic factors.

Question 43

the inadequate superego

Answer 43

The tripartite personality – id, ego and superego. The superego is formed at the end of the phallic stage (3-6 years) of development when children have resolved the Oedipus complex/Electra complex. ​
The superego runs on the morality principle and exerts its influence by punishing the ego through guilt for wrongdoing, whilst rewarding it with pride for moral behaviour.

Question 44

Ronald blackburn

Answer 44

argued that if the superego is somehow deficient then criminal behaviour is inevitable because the id –runs on the pleasure principle is given ‘free rein’ and is not properly controlled. There are three types of inadequate superegos which have been identified:​

The weak superego ​
The deviant superego​
The over-harsh superego

Question 45

The weak superego

Answer 45

if the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, the child cannot internalise a fully-formed superego as there is no opportunity for identification. This would make immoral or criminal behaviour more likely. ​

Question 46

The deviant superego

Answer 46

if the superego that the child internalises has immoral or deviant values this would lead to offending behaviour. For example, a boy who was raised by a criminal father may not associate guilt with wrongdoing​

Question 47

The over-harsh superego –

Answer 47

a healthy superego is kind but also firm which has rules but is also forgiving. An over-harsh superego however is an excessively disciplinary superego which riddles the person with guilt and anxiety. This may unconsciously drive the individual to perform criminal acts to satisfy the superego’s overwhelming need for punishment. A harsh superego may also lead to a build-up of pressure which may cause an outburst of inappropriate behaviour​

Question 48

Displacement

Answer 48

might explain why innocent victims are targeted as substitutes for real objects of anger/frustration​

Question 48

Sublimation

Answer 48

is more like repression, but instead of destructively repressing overwhelming feelings, it transforms the feelings into constructive channels for behaviour, emotion, or action. So, desire to commit a heinous crime is diluted, e.g. vandalising a person’s car instead of physically attacking them​

Question 49

Rationalisation

Answer 49

e.g. ‘rich people deserve to be burgled because they have much more than everyone else’​

Question 50

bowl by

Answer 50

argued that the ability to form meaningful relationships in adulthood was dependent on the relationship that was shared with a mother figure (warm, continuous relationship). This bond between the mother and child was seen as unique and vital for the child’s well-being and development. ​
A failure, therefore, to establish this bond between the mother and child during the first few years of life means that the child will experience damaging and irreversible consequences in later life/adulthood. One of these is the development of affectionless psychopathy – which is characterised by a lack of guilt, empathy and care for others. These individuals are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour and cant develop close relationships with others as they lack the early experience to do so. ​

Question 51

Criminal personality:

Question 52

Extraversion

Question 53

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Neuroticism

Question 54

Psychoticism

Question 55

Eysenck’s Theory of the Criminal personality

Question 56

MgCurk and Mgdougal (1981)

Answer 56

Found some evidence to support the criminal personality - used a personality questionnaire based on Eysenck’s theory and sent it to 100 college students that they had identified as ‘delinquent’ and 100 who were not delinquent.​
They found significant differences between the 2 groups - within the delinquent sample there was a cluster of students with both neuroticism and high extraversion, as well as a sub-group who scored high on neuroticism, extraversion and psychoticism. In low delinquent group - were a significant % of individuals with low neuroticism and extraversion scores

Question 57

The role of socialisation

Answer 57

Eysenck argued that personality is linked to criminal behaviour through socialisation processes. Criminal behavior is developmentally immature in that it is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification​
The process of socialisation is one in which children are taught to become able to delay gratification.​
People with high E and N scores have nervous systems which are difficult to condition, consequently, they are less likely to learn how to respond to antisocial impulses with anxiety. So, they are more likely to behave antisocially when the opportunity presents itself.

Question 58

Lemon Bottle Study

Answer 58

Lemon juice (stimulation) produces little saliva in extraverts, but more in introverts. This is because extraverts are less sensitive to stimulation than introverts. This explains why extraverts seek excitement – they need more stimulation to get any enjoyment (compensating for a low level of arousal). Introverts avoid excitement because it is overstimulating (too much arousal is uncomfortable).

Question 59

Token Economy

Answer 59

token economies are based on operant conditioning – involves reinforcing desirable behaviour with a token which can then be exchanged for some kind of reward. ​
Desirable behaviour within prisons may include; avoiding conflict, following prison rules, keeping your cell orderly and tidy etc.​
Prisoners are given a token each time they perform a desirable behaviour. Tokens are secondary reinforcers because they derive their value from their association with a reward.​
Tokens (rewards) are given as a secondary reinforcer ​
To be exchanged for primary reinforcer (i.e. food, games, tv time, privileges)

The subsequent reward will also vary according to the institution, but you exchange your token for a reward.​
These rewards may be; a phone call to a loved one, time in the gym/exercise yard, extra cigarettes or food, conjugal visits etc. ​
Each of these behaviours and rewards would be made clear to the prisoners before the programme is implemented. It would also emphasise that non-compliance with the rules may result in tokens and therefore the associated privileges being withheld or removed (punishment).​

Question 60

Changing Behaviour

Answer 60

Firstly, the desirable behaviour is identified (avoiding confrontation, keeping an orderly/clean room), broken down into small increments and a baseline measure is established. ​
The behaviours that are to be reinforced are decided upon and all those who come into contact with the offenders must follow the same regime of selective reinforcement. So, the prison officers may reinforce a particular prisoner for working positively in a group or ‘turning the other cheek’ when provoked etc. ​
The whole programme can be overseen by prison officials who monitor the programme’s effectiveness on the prison as a whole and the individual offender also. ​
A system of exchange of goods for tokens (no monetary value)

Question 61

Key study to support use of token economy : Hobbs & Holt (1979)

Answer 61

Tested the use of token economy in young delinquents’ group in a correctional facility in Alabama across three behavioural units (and a fourth which acted as a control)​
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Staff were given extensive training on deciding which behaviours deserved tokens and how many tokens (3 x 4-hour sessions over a succession of months) ​
Discussed methods of observing and recording behaviours accurately and reliably and had weekly sessions to monitor the data collection ​
125 boys divided into four groups (one control received no tokens) ​
Baseline data was collected (before use of tokens) ​
Boys were told token categories and list of behaviours which were to be rewarded​
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At the end of each day the boys each received a paper telling them how many token they received that day​
They could spend their token how they wished (on sweets, food, cigarettes) or save up for bigger treats worth more tokens ( visits home, games)

Question 62

results of hobbs and holts

Answer 62

The control group (no token economy group) showed no increase in desired behaviours from baseline and end of observations – so they continued to do things like; being aggressive, not being tidy etc. ​
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The baseline percentages of desired behaviour pre-token economy for the three experimental groups were 66%, 47% and 73%​
The post-token percentages for the three experimental groups increased to 91%, 81% and 94%.​
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So, they observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared to the non-token economy group.​

Question 63

Novaco (1975)

Answer 63

suggested that cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which usually lead to the aggressive acts. ​
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His argument is that, in some people anger is quick to surface especially in situations that are perceived to be anxiety-inducing or threatening. ​
​

Question 64

Anger management

Answer 64

This uses both the cognitive approach and behaviourist principles to challenge angry/aggressive responses in prisoners​
Anger management is a form of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) where the individual is taught to recognise when they are losing control, and then encourages individuals to develop techniques which bring about conflict-resolution without the need for violence. It is widely used with prisoners as an effective way of dealing with anger issues.

Question 65

What are the aims of anger management?

Answer 65

To reduce anger in prisons​
A longer-term aim of rehabilitation and reduction of recidivism (especially in violent prisoners)

Question 66

1. Cognitive restructuring

Answer 66

For prisoners to have greater control over their thought processes surrounding angry emotions

Question 67

. Regulation of arousal

Answer 67

Learning how to control their physiological state when feeling angry

Question 68

. Behavioural strategies

Answer 68

Asserting behavioural control when in an angry state (i.e. withdrawal from situation, problem solving and assertiveness)

Question 69

Anger management therapy was devised by Novaco (1975) and is structured in 3 stages;

Answer 69

Cognitive preparation ​
Skill acquisition ​
Application practice

Question 70

Cognitive preparation

Answer 70

Prisoners learn about the physiological response of anger ​
They learn where anger can be productive (i.e. for survival)​
They then are encouraged to discuss/write down their own patterns of anger ​
They need to reflect on past experience – to identify triggers to anger and the ways their interpretation of events may be irrational.

Question 71

2. Skill acquisition

Answer 71

In this stage offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger-provoking situations more rationally and effectively. ​
Techniques covered may be; ​
Cognitive: positive self-talk to encourage calmness​
Behavioural: assertiveness training in how to communicate more effectively ​
Physiological: methods of relaxation and/or meditation ​
The latter particularly promotes the idea that it is possible for the offender to be in control of their emotions rather than ruled/overtaken by them

Question 72

3. Application Practice

Answer 72

In the final stage, offenders are given the opportunity to practice their skills within a carefully monitored environment. The role play likely involved the offender and the therapist re-enacting scenarios that may have escalated feelings of anger previously. ​
This requires commitment from the offender as they need to see the scenario as real. It also requires a certain amount of bravery from the therapist whose job it is to ‘wind up’ the offender in order to assess their progress. If they did the role-play well, they’d be rewarded with positive reinforcement from the therapist ​
The therapist may give the offender constructive feedback on the role-play, which the offender would then practice and utilise in the next sessions. They may also be asked to keep a diary of their performances in anger invoking situations

Question 73

Keen et al. (2000

Answer 73

studied the progress made in a group of young offenders aged 17-21 who took part in an anger management programme. ​
The national anger management package was developed by England and Wales Prison Service 1995 which comprises of eight two-hour sessions, the first seven over a three-week period and the last session is a month after. The content follows the stages we spoke about earlier. ​
Although there were no initial issues, the outcomes were generally positive, and offenders reported an increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self-control ​

Question 74

Restorative Justice Programmes

Answer 74

The basic principles of restorative justice are not new. ​
Changing the emphasis:​
Historically, a person convicted of a criminal offence would have been regarded as committing a crime against the state.​
In contrast, restorative justice (RI) programs switch the emphasis from the need of the state (to reinforce the law and punish) to the needs of the victim (to feel compensated in some way and come to terms with the crime). To help with this, victims are encouraged to take an active role in the process, whilst offenders are required to take responsibility and face up to what they have done

Question 75

The restorative justice process

Answer 75

John Braithwaite (2004) argued that ‘crime hurts, justice should heal’. Restorative justice is a process of managed collaboration between the offender and the victim based on healing and empowerment. ​
A supervised meeting between the two parties is organised – attended by a trained mediator – in which the victim is given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain how the incident affected them. ​
The offender through this process, should be able to see the consequences of their actions, including the emotional distress their offence has caused. This an important part of the rehabilitation process.

Question 76

The restorative justice process: key features

Answer 76

These programmes can be quite diverse, but they share some key features:​
They focus on acceptance of responsibility and positive change for people who harm other: there is less emphasis on punishment ​
They are not restricted to courtrooms; survivors and offenders may voluntarily choose to meet face-to-face in a non-courtroom setting along with other relevant community members.​
The process is active rather than passive involvement of all parties in the process where possible ​
The focus is on positive outcomes for survivors and those who have engaged in wrongdoing

Question 77

Variations of the process

Answer 77

Not all restorative justice programmes involve face-to-face encounters between the victim and offender. Sometimes, the offender may instead make some financial restitution to the victim which may reflect the psychological pain caused to the victim or the actual physical damage – like if the offence was a break-in. ​
Other variations may include the offender repairing the damaged property themselves. ​
The process is flexible and can function as an alternative to prison (particularly if the offender is young), as an ‘add-on’ to community service or as an incentive to reduce the existing sentence

Question 78

RESTITUTION

Answer 78

Restitution is a monetary payment by the offender to the survivor for harm from the offence.​
Financial – offender pays​
Practical – offender does repair themselves​
Emotional – support healing process by helping to rebuild the survivor’s confidence.

Question 79

The Restorative Justice Council (RJC)