approaches rev Flashcards

Question

oral stages

Answer 1

Birth to 1 Year: the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation. The focus of pleasure is the mouth and the mother’s breast is the object of desire. The challenge in this age is that the child needs to become more independent from the caregiver. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues such as smoking, aggression, critical, sarcastic, nail biting etc.

Answer 2

1 to 3 years. During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The child gets pleasure by controlling bowel movements. If parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents, destructive personality will develop. The child will become perfectionist, obsessive or messy.

Answer 3

3 to 6 Years. Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. Electra complex (penis envy) and the Oedipus complex (castration anxiety.) The child will develop a phallic personality: narcissistic, reckless and possibly homosexual.

Answer 4

6 to Puberty. During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

Answer 5

uberty to Death. Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty. If fixation occurs, then homosexual relationships will take place.

Answer 6

In the Phallic stage (3-6yrs) Freud claimed that little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their father – who they saw as their rival (Oedipus complex). Fearing that their father will castrate them, the boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father.

Answer 7

Freud suggested girls also go through something similar – penis envy: they desire their father & hate their mother (Electra complex) – give up this desire over time and replace it with a desire for a baby.

Answer 8

Supported his theory of the Oedipus Complex with the case of Little Hans. Hans was a five-year old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse. Freud suggested his phobia was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was displaced onto the horse. Horses were symbolic of Hans’ real unconscious fear – Castration.

Answer 9

-infleucned by genetic inheritance -cns brain essential for thought and behaviour to occur -infuelnced by chem processes chem imbalance bipolar -humans eveolved through evolution so we have much in cokmmon wirh animals

Answer 10

Behavioural characteristics are caused by our genes. These are found on chromosomes, which are made up of DNA, and they are inherited from our parents. If a family member has a certain trait, you are more likely to have the same trait. People inherit a predisposition to behave in a certain way.

Answer 11

monozygotic twins higjer concordance rates fr schiso bipolar and enoerexia

Answer 12

The actual expression of your genetic make up (height, eye colour) What happens when the genotype interacts with the environment.

Answer 13

Your unique genetic make up (apart from monozygotic twins)

Answer 14

lowlevels dep

Answer 15

high levels stress emotion arousal

Answer 16

highlvels sex agression

Answer 17

high levels shizo

Answer 18

good looks, youth, chastity higher than women (believed to be good signs of female fertility)

Answer 19

Women rate good financial prospects, and dependability higher than men (women are believed to look for qualities in men that means they will provide for them)

Answer 20

eeg mri animals casestudys twin study

Answer 21

Dramatic contributions to psychology in understanding basic human behaviours such as eating, sleeping etc Brain scanning techniques provides greater understanding of the impact specific areas has on behaviour Practice application such as drug treatments for psychological disorders

Answer 22

claiming that all thought and behaviour is caused by factors outside of our control. EVIDENCE: For example, according to this approach behaviour is caused by our genes and the activity of neurotransmitters in the brain. EVALUATION: This is a weakness because it ignores the idea of free will and that we as humans have control over our behaviour - we are not simply pre-programmed by genes.

Answer 23

attempts to reduce all aspects of human behaviour down to just one level of explanation. EVIDENCE: For example, all human behaviour is reduced down to just physical processes such as activity of neurotransmitters (e.g. OCD is explained in terms of levels of serotonin in the brain). EVALUATION: This is a weakness because it underestimates the role of our environment in behaviour. However, reductionism is also a strength because by isolating just one factor it allows researchers to investigate that factor scientifically.

Answer 24

or example MRI/CAT scans are used to investigate the brain and the areas of the brain that are responsible for certain disorders/behaviours. EVALUATION: This is a strength because it means that research findings are objective.

Answer 25

Has roots in 17th and early 18th century philosophy once known as experimental philosophy. Early influences included Rene Descartes, and his concept of Cartesian dualism, brain is not the same as the mind. This is a clear starting point for psychology.

Answer 26

John Locke proposed the concept of empiricism - all knowledge is derived from sensory experience and can be studied using the scientific method

Answer 27

Opened the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Study the structure of the human mind, by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements, hence his approach became known as STRUCTURALISM

Answer 28

Wundt used introspection - ‘looking into’. Participants were asked to reflect on their own cognitive processes and describe them. Wundt established psychology as a science by using the scientific method.

Answer 29

All behaviour is seen as being caused (determined) If behaviour is determined, then it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions (predictability)

Answer 30

Introspection relies primarily on non-observable responses Introspection produced data that was subjective

Answer 31

Early behaviourist such as Watson, rejected introspection as unobservable. Argued we can only measure behaviour we can see

Answer 32

used introspection to study the cognitive processes of fruit machine gamblers. He asked them to ‘think aloud’ whilst playing a fruit machine into a microphone on their lapel.

Answer 33

Description. tells us “what” occurred Explanation. ells us “why” a behaviour or a mental process occurred Prediction . identifies conditions under which a future behaviour or mental process is likely to occur Change. applies psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behaviour and to bring about desired change

Answer 34

Knowledge acquired using scientific methods are more than just the passive acceptance of facts Causes of behaviour can be established through the use of methods that are empirical and replicable Scientific knowledge is self-corrective meaning that it can be refined or abandoned

Answer 35

Scientific psychologists create contrived situations that create artificial behaviours Much of the subject matter of psychology is unobservable, therefore cannot be measured with any degree of accuracy Not all psychologists share the view that that human behaviour can be explored through scientific methods

Answer 36

operant learning classical conditioning

Answer 37

earning through the consequences of behaviour. Positive/negative reinforcement + behaviour strengthened by the addition of something such as praise or a direct reward behaviour is strengthened by the consequence of the stopping or avoiding of a negative condition Punishment – less likely to repeat

Answer 38

The reward is desirable consequences, feeling relaxed, confident, gaining approval of friends.

Answer 39

The reward is the removal of an unpleasant consequence, relief from withdrawal symptoms

Answer 40

Skinner used a strong experimental method which allowed him to control the conditions in which it was setup in. The 'Skinners Box' in particular is a good example of this in practice where the consequence was manipulated to see the effects on the rats behaviour. All of this allowed him to draw a strong cause and effect relationship. :( - Critics have pointed out that he has relied strongly on the fact he can extrapolate his findings from rats onto humans. We are very different to rats and specifically we have free will, it can be argued that we do not have our behaviour determined by positive and negative reinforcement

Answer 41

It is difficult to say that conditioning works the same for every animal as some animals find it harder to form associations with certain stimuli. Thus Seligman proposed preparedness, this means that animals are prepared to associate aspects that will help their survival such as the smell of meat with food, but are less ready to associate random items such as a bell with a tree.

Answer 42

Skinner studies how animals can learn from consequences of their own actions. Consequences involve either: Positive reinforcement where something desirable is obtained or negative reinforcement where something undesirable is removed. Skinner used a 'Skinner Box' which he placed one rat inside at a time. Each box had a variety of different stimuli including a speaker, lights an electric floor and a food dispenser connected to a lever. The time taken for the rats to learn that pressing the lever was recorded. He found that rats would initially run around the cage until accidentally pressing the lever then it was rewarded the food. The more it was put into the box, the quicker they got at learning about the lever. The rat had learnt that when it pressed the leaver there was a reward in return

Answer 43

Pavlov was studying dogs salivation however during his studies he found that dogs would end up salivating before there was any food, the direction of his studies changed and outlined classical conditioning. He eventually ended up ringing a bell before giving the dogs food and then he would ring a bell and give no food, the dogs still salivated. The food is the UCS and salivation is the UCR. The bell had become the CS and salivation the CR.

Answer 44

Observation & Imitation (modelling) Mental or cognitive processes are essential. Observational learning from identification of appropriate ‘models’. Vicarious Reinforcement. Distinction between learning behaviour and the performance of that behaviour – Self-Efficacy.

Answer 45

attention retention] resporduction motivation

Answer 46

how much you concentrate on the model showing the behaviour

Answer 47

storing the behaviour you have witnessed

Answer 48

copying the behaviour you witnessed

Answer 49

good reason to show the witnessed behaviour – a real/imaginary incentive

Answer 50

Method: 2 groups. One group of children were in a room with an adult that shouted abuse at a doll and hit it with a hammer. The other group, the 'control group' saw non-aggressive behaviour from adults towards the dolls. Results The children were put in a room alone. High levels of aggressive behaviour was apparent from children who had observed aggression. Conclusions Boys were also more aggressive than girls. Exposure led to aggressive behaviour.

Answer 51

The more similar the model is seen to be by the observer. (Age/sex) Behaviour that is simple and easy is more likely to be imitated. Aggressive and antisocial behaviour is also more likely to be imitated (eg Bandura's original study emphasises this.)

Answer 52

Role of reinforcement Behaviour is learnt

Answer 53

Expectancy SLT makes a distinction between learning and performance Animals are not seen as the same as humans

Answer 54

A degree of free will because you can choose how to behave However, your choice might still be determined by expectancy

Answer 55

Classical conditioning – explaining phobias, treating phobias (systematic desensitisation) SLT – understanding aggression, eating disorders

Answer 56

POINT: One strength of SLT is it emphasises the importance of cognitive factors EVIDENCE: Neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer a fully comprehensive account of human learning on their own because cognitive factors are not taken into account. Humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions. EVALUATION: This shows that SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning than the behaviourist approach by recognising the role of meditational processes.

Answer 57

POINT: One limitation of the SLT is that it relies too heavily on evidence from contrived lab studies. EVIDENCE: Many of Bandura's ideas were developed through observation of children's behaviour in lab settings. This raises the problem of demand characteristics as the artificial setting may have encouraged the children to behave as they believe was expected of them therefore reducing the study's internal validity. EVALUATION: This suggests that Bandura's research actually tells us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.

Answer 58

Thought process should be studied scientifically. Stimulus – response is accurate BUT there is a thought process between stimulus and response The human mind is like a computer, called the ‘computer analogy’ (encodes/stores/retrieves

Answer 59

Theoretical models are used to help understand/explain mental processes Models of memory demonstrates how memories are stored, forgotten, retrieved etc

Answer 60

input processing output

Answer 61

Information comes in from the environment via our senses and is coded by the individua

Answer 62

The information, once encoded, can be processed (using schemas, for example)

Answer 63

The output is the behavioural response. This is emitted following the processing.

Answer 64

Computer coding is not affected by emotions (i.e. anxiety) Computer code has been directly inputted but humans add meaning to the input they receive through the senses, e.g. perception and interpretation Computers always pay attention to inputs; humans can direct their attention away from one input to another Humans receive inputs via various senses

Answer 65

Both take data from outside and code it (Schemas) They are both capable of storage (memory). They both have the capacity to work on material, i.e. transform it in some way, e.g. working memory.

Answer 66

The study of brain structure on mental processes. Marries brain scanning technologies (PET, fMRI) with the study of cognitive processes. How damage to certain parts of the brain impact on cognitive functioning.

Answer 67

Led to an emergence of cognitive science as a unified programme for studying the mind Cognitive psychology is often at the forefront of many university departments. Helps us to understand the cause of many psychological problems such as phobias and depression CBT is an effective treatment that is widely used Important contribution to the field of artificial intelligence (AI) and robots.

Answer 68

Cognitive psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from the behaviour they observe. -Cognitive psychology, as a consequence, occasionally suffers from being too abstract and theoretical in nature. -Experimental studies of mental processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli (such as memory tests with lists of words). They may not represent everyday memory experience. -May lack external validity.

Answer 69

Computer analogy: even though there are similarities between the human mind and a computer (inputs, storage systems, outputs, the use of a central processor) analogy used by many. -Machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and how this may affect our ability to process information. -Research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitness