psychopathology Flashcards
what is statistical infrequency 3
-abnormality is defined as those behaviours that are extremely and statistically rarest
-therefore found in few people -eg An Iq result under 70 is seen to be abnormal
evaluation of statistical infrequency
- some abnormal behaviour is desirable eg an IQ over 150 is seen as “abnormally intelligent” TMB using SI the define abnormality means that we are unable to disguish desirable and undesirable behaviour
- cut off point is every subjective eg why is 71 classed as normal and not 69 on an IQ test TMB the lack of definity between abnormality and normalative
deviation from social norms 5
-abnormal behaviour is seen as a deviation from unstated rules we learn from society
-how we ought to behave.
-Anything that violets these rules is considered abnormal
- in the past homosexuality was classed as abnormal
-In the uk it would be consider unacceptable to scream in a library
evaluation of DFSN
+ breaking norms isnt always a bad thing eg homosexuality accepted now TMB historical be for the better
- deviance is related to context and degree eg summer and winter clothing TMB social deviance cant offer a full definition of abnormality because it is inevitably related to both context and degree
failure to function adequately 3
-rosenhan and seligman
-people are judged on their ability to go about daily life.
- If they cant do this and are also experiencing distress then it is considered a sign of abnormality.
examples of failure to function adequately
The DSM considers 6 factors ed getting along with people and self care on a scale of 1-5 generating a quantitive number out of 180 for functioning. eg maladaptiveness self harm and observer discomfort
evaluate FTFA
-who judges?
eg individaul might be content with their situation for example an old man staying at home and leaving when only necessary. TMB the judgement might be subjective based on who is deciding.
-cultural relativism
eg different diagnoses when applied to different cultures TMB the model is limited by different cultural relativisms.
deviation from ideal mental health 5
-proposed by jahoda
-abnormality is defined in terms of mental health behaviours that are associated with competence and happiness.
-judged against criteria of someone good mental health
-for example mastery of the environment eg person can adopt to new situation and be at ease to all situations
-for example autonomy eg state of independence and self determination
evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health
- positive approach
ed doesn’t describe abnormality as undesirable and influenced the positive psychology movement TMB postive outlook - unrealistic criteria
eg hard to assess environmental mastery
TMB not really usable for identifying abnormality
what is depression
a mood disorder where an individual feels sad and or lacks interest in their usual activities. Further characteristics irrational negative thoughts, raised/lowered activity levels difficulties concentrating, sleep and eating
characteristics of depression
emotional- sadness, feeling empty, low self esteem lost of pleasure in usual hobbies and anger (anhedonia)
behavioural- shift in activity levels or reduced energy levels in sleep and appetite
cognitive- negative schemas that attract negative thoughts that are irrational eg “ i failed my exam i am stupid” Do not have to be evidence base.
what is OCD
an anxiety disorder where anxiety arises from both obsession (persistent thoughts) and compulsions (repetitve behaviour) are a response to obsessions and the person believes the compulsions will reduce anxiety.
characteristics of OCD
emotional- obsessions and compulsions are a source of anxiety and distress. suffers are aware their behaviour is excessive which causes embarrassment and shame.
behavioural- compulsive behaviours are performed to reduce anxiety they are compelled because they believe something terrible will happen these are repetitive and unconcealed eg handwashing
cognitive- obsessions are recurrent, intrusive thoughts/impulses and perceived to the sufferer as inappropriate or forbidden eg fleeting sexual images
definition of phobias
a group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anxiety in responce to a phobic stimulus. This is life interfering
characteristics of phobias
emotional- fear marked as persistent, excessive and unreasonable coupled with feelings of anxiety and panic
behavioural - avoiding phobic stimulus eg a social phobic will avoid social situations
cognitive - mental processes in claustrophobia such as “ the small space is out to get me” are irrational not evidence based
what is a phobia
a phobia is an irrational fear that produces conscious avoiding behaviours eg claustrophobia
describe Mowrer’s model in explaining phobias - INITIATION
process 1 - initiation classical conditioning for example a phobia of dogs.
when associated with a bite (UCS) turns into the CR of fear to seeing a dog CS which was previously a NS
describe Mowrer’s model in explaining phobias - MAINTENANCE
process 2 - maintenance operant conditioning for example avoiding the phobic stimulus reduces fear and is therefore rewarding making it more likely for a individual to avoid their phobia (negative reinforcement)
mowers two process model 3
-suggests that all phobias are learned
-emphasises the importance of the environment
-proposes that some learning is maladaptive (not helpful maybe harmful and can led to abnormal behaviour
evaluate mowrers 2 way process model
+ supporting study little albert by watson and raynor created a phobia of rats in 11 month old TMB it suggests that phobias can be created from a unfortunate event therefore increases the validity
- biological preparedness seligman suggests we have ancient fears such as heights and strangers which have come from evolution and survival TMB not all phobias derive from a traumatic experience
-diathesis stress model for example mowrers model cant explain generic vulnerability diathesis (every one born with genetic vulnerability) stress (environmental factors) that trigger the genetic vulnerability
A hierarchy for a spider phobia might be
1= least feared = seeing spider on bathroom floor
2= approaching the spider with a glass
3= catching the spider in a glass
4= tipping the spider onto a table
5= Most feared picking the spider up and putting it out of your front door
what is systematic desensitisation?
-when a client is gradually exposed their phobic stimulus under relaxed conditions until the anxiety is extinguished
-A hierarchy of gradual steps
-real or imagined feared situations
what 3 components makes up for systematic desensitisation
- fear hierarchy based on progression gradual steps determined by patient and therapist from least to most fearful only move onto next stage after complete relaxation achieved in previous stage
-relaxation training patient taught deep muscle relaxation ed deep slow breathing starting with least feared learns to relax at each stage
-reciprocal inhibition based on the theory that no 2 opposite emotions can be felt a once eg fear and relaxation
what is flooding 5
-a client is exposed to the phobia at its worst
-. A long session (2-3 hours) until the anxiety reaction has disappeared
-being taught how to relax. such as deep breathing
- this can either be vivo (real) or virtual reality
-fear responses have a time limit as adrenaline reduces a new stimulus-response link can be learnt
2 explainations for depression
- becks negative triad
-Ellis ABC model
evaluation of systematic desensitisation
+ supporting Mcgrath study 75% responded to treatment
- not appropriate for all phobias ohman suggested SD might be as useful for evolutionary survival components eg fear of the dark TMB it suggests SD only effective for some phobias
evaluation for flooding
- individual difference flooding isnt an appropriate treatment for everyone for example it is highly traumatic process therefore would limit the effectiveness of the therapy
+effectiveness craske et al in 2008 found SD and flooding were equally useful TMB it suggests that flooding is an effective treatment
cognitive biases
-depressed people have assumptions about themselves /situations
-made without examining the evidence usually unhelpful
- such as overgeneralisation involving sweeping conclusions regarding self worth on small piece of evidence ‘ I am not intelligent for a levels because of one bad test’
describe Ellis’ ABC model
ellis believed irrational beliefs lay at the core of mental disorders
A- activating event
B- beliefs (irrational) - interpretation of the situation
C- consequence eg unhealthy emotion
musturbatory thinking - thinking that certain ideas must be true in order for an individual to be happy eg i must be accepted by people to be happy
-Therefore, the consequences (emotions) following an activating event are linked to a persons beliefs about what happened
mustabatory thinking 5
-source for irrational beliefs
-thinking that certain ideas/assumptions must be true in order for an individual to be happy
- for example ‘ I must do well or very well in order to feel good about myself
-likely to be disappointed
-if a person fails an exam not depressed because they failed but believe they have to be successful at everything
describe Becks negative triad
-tendency to interpret everyday events negatively to feel a lack of control
-negative schemas are acquired during childhood
-depressed people have acquired a negative schema these led to cognitive biases for example labelling oneself “i am worthless”
negative triad - negative expectations about the self , world and future led to depression
evaluation for explainations of depression
+ supporting study Bates et al he gave depressed participants negative automatic statements he found that they became more depressed TMB it supports the view that negative thinking can led to depression
- ignores other factors such as low levels of serotonin additionally Zhang et al found a gene 10 times more common in depressed patients TMB it can be argued the explainations arnt full
+real world application led to the treatment of CBT TMB it is helping people therefore suggests its effective
describe CBT
-challenging irrational thoughts
Disputing / challenging
Effects of disputing
F new feelings that are produced
-Homework assignments that test irrational beliefs against reality
- behavioural actions encouraging patients to be active and peruse usually hobbies
-unconditional positive regard facilitates a change in attitude by therapist showing their value as a person
skills learnt in therapy
-homework= encourages client to practice alternative thought patterns in their everyday life
-behavioural tasks= helps client test their irrational thinking eg joining a class to encourage new friendships and challenge belief ‘I won’t be able to achieve anything’
unconditional positive regard= a key element to therapy is a respectful and non-judgmental relationship with the therapist
Rational emotive behavioural therapy
-psychological problems occur as a result of irrational thinking because of faulty beliefs
-aim of REBT was to turn irrational thoughts into rational ones also to work with individual to change their behaviour patterns (eg avoidance)
-Eliss extended his ABC model to include
D- disputing irrational belief
E- effect of disputing
F- feelings/emotions produced
evaluation of CBT
+ supporting study Ellis found 90% effective with 27 sessions supporting research
- individual differences takes a lot of effort for patient to do homework and do a thought diary TMB individual differences effect its effectiveness
+ support for behavioural action babyak et al studied 156 either assigned either sports drugs or all. the ones with all showed significant improvement over 4 months TMB change in behaviour can be benificial to treating depression
genetic explaination to OCD
-Genetic explanations for OCD suggest that individuals inherit specific genes that cause OCD. Two genes that have been linked to OCD are the COMT gene and SERT gene. The SERT gene (also known as the 5-HTT gene) affects the transport and regulation of serotonin and can cause lower levels of serotonin, which is also associated with OCD. COMT is responsible for dopamine and low activity of the COMT gene is also associated with OCD. It is also believed that OCD is a polygenic condition, which means that several genes (230 genes) are involved.
- diathesis stress model gentic predisposition of illness partly due to inherited genes + environmental factors trigger OCD
Neural factors to OCD
-high levels of dopamine (which assists with movement, reward systems) induce sterotypical movements resembling compulsive behaviour found in OCD patients
-low levels of serotonin(regulated mood) found in OCD linked to obsessions
-basal ganglia when damaged affects the coordination of movement which induce sterotypical movements resembling compulsive behaviour found in OCD patients Patients who suffer head injuries often develop OCD like symptoms following recovery
-obitofrontal cortex coverts sensory information into actions/ behaviours if it has higher activity may lead to intrusive thoughts and obsessions PET scans found higher activity in patients with OCD Higher activity increases conversion of sensory information to actions which results in compulsions
evaluation to explainations to OCD
+ supporting twin study Nestadt et al found that monozygotic twins had a concorance rate of 68% whereas dizygotic twins had 31% TMB the fact that MZ share 100% genes shows there is a genetic componant to OCD
+ real life application women can have eggs screened and turn certain genes off TMB suggests that specific genes can cause OCD
-biological approach iggnores the diathesis stress model could be caused by classical conditions eg dirt NS and illness UCS TMB not a full explaination
drugs therapy for OCD
-antidepressants SSRIs (prozac)
-tricyclics such as clomipramine brand name anafranil
-anti anxiety valium
how do SSRIs treat OCD
-selsctive serotonin reuptake –SSRI’s block the re-uptake of serotonin at the pre-synaptic membrane increasing the serotonin concentration at receptor sites on the post synaptic membrane
-increase levels of serotonin subsequently reduces levels of anxiety associated with OCD
how do tricyclics treat OCD
work the same as sSRI’s but also do the same with Noradrenaline a nuerotransmittor involved in autonomic system eg heart rate these have big side effects
-block the transporter mechanism which re-absorbs serotonin and noradrenaline in the pre-synaptic nueron
-therefore more of these neurotransmitters are left in the synapse
how do anti anxiety drugs work to treat OCD
slows down central nervous system and enhances activity of GABA neurotransmitter therefore quietening effect of nuerons on the brain. it increases the flow of chloride ions making it harder for nueron to be stimulated making people feel relaxed
evaluation of treatments to OCD
-not a lasting cure may work in the short term but doesnt cure the underlying cure for OCD
-side effects for SSRis are nausea headache and insomnia TMB harsh side effects and possablity of addiction limit drugs usefullness
+Soomro reviewd 17 cases of drug vs placebo and drug was more effective in reducing symptoms TMB shown to be effective
what is an obsession
-internal
-a persistent thought, idea, impulse or image that experienced repeatedly
-feels intrusive and causes anxiety
what is a compulsion
-external
-a receptive and rigid behaviour or mental act
-a person feels driven to perform in order to prevent or reduce anxiety
DSM recognises OCD and which related disorders (3)
-trichotillomania = compulsive hair pulling
-hoarding disorder = compulsive gathering of possessions inability to part with anything regardless of value
-excoriation disorder = compulsive skin picking
OCD cycle
-obsessive thought
-anxiety
-compulsive behaviour
-temporary relief
