psychopathology

Question 1

what is statistical infrequency

Answer 1

abnormality is defined as those behaviours that are extremely and statistically rarest therefore found in few people for example An Iq result under 70 is seen to be abnormal

Question 2

evaluation of statistical infrequency

Answer 2

• some abnormal behaviour is desirable eg an IQ over 150 is seen as “abnormally intelligent” TMB using SI the define abnormality means that we are unable to disguish desirable and undesirable behaviour
• cut off point is every subjective eg why is 71 classed as normal and not 69 on an IQ test TMB the lack of definity between abnormality and normalative

Question 3

deviation from social norms

Answer 3

abnormal bahaviour is seen as a deviation frm unstated rules about how we ought to behave. Anything that violets these rules is considered abnormal eg in the past homosexuality was classed as abnormal

Question 4

evaluation of DFSN

Answer 4

+ breaking norms isnt always a bad thing eg homosexuality accepted now TMB historical be for the better
- deviance is related to context and degree eg summer and winter clothing TMB social deviance cant offer a full definition of abnormality because it is inevitably related to both context and degree

Question 5

failure to function adequately

Answer 5

people are judged on their ability to go about daily life. If they cant do this and are also experiencing distress then it is considered a sign of abnormality.

Question 6

examples of failure to function adequately

Answer 6

The DSM considers 6 factors ed getting along with people and self care on a scale of 1-5 generating a quantitive number out of 180 for functioning. eg maladaptiveness self harm and observer discomfort

Question 7

evaluate FTFA

Answer 7

-who judges?
eg individaul might be content with their situation for example an old man staying at home and leaving when only necessary. TMB the judgement might be subjective based on who is deciding.
-cultural relativism
eg different diagnoses when applied to different cultures TMB the model is limited by different cultural relativisms.

Question 8

deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 8

abnormality is defined in terms of mental health behaviours that are associated with competence and happiness. ideal mental health would include a positive attitude towards self, resistance to stress and accurate perception of life.

Question 9

evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 9

• positive approach
  ed doesn’t describe abnormality as undesirable and influenced the positive psychology movement TMB postive outlook
• unrealistic criteria
  eg hard to assess environmental mastery
  TMB not really usable for identifying abnormality

Question 10

what is depression

Answer 10

a mood disorder where an individual feels sad and or lacks interest in their usual activities. Further characteristics irrational negative thoughts, raised/lowered activity levels difficulties concentrating, sleep and eating

Question 11

characteristics of depression

Answer 11

emotional- sadness, feeling empty, low self esteem lost of pleasure in usual hobbies and anger
behavioural- shift in activity levels, sleep and appetite
cognitive- negative schemas that attract negative thoughts that are irrational eg “ i failed my exam i am stupid”

Question 12

what is OCD

Answer 12

an anxiety disorder where anxiety arises from both obsession (persistent thoughts) and compulsions (repetitve behaviour) are a response to obsessions and the person believes the compulsions will reduce anxiety.

Question 13

characteristics of OCD

Answer 13

emotional- obsessions and compulsions are a source of anxiety and distress. suffers are aware their behaviour is excessive which causes embarrassment and shame.
behavioural- compulsive behaviours are performed to reduce anxiety they are compelled because they believe something awful will happen
cognitive- obsessions are recurrent and perceived to the sufferer as inappropriate or forbidden

Question 14

definition of phobias

Answer 14

a group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anxiety in responce to a phobic stimulus. This is life interfering

Question 15

characteristics of phobias

Answer 15

emotional- excessive dear panic and high levels of anxiety
behavioural - avoiding phobic stimulus
cognitive - mental processes in claustrophobia such as “ the small space is out to get me”

Question 16

what is a phobia

Answer 16

a phobia is an irrational fear that produces conscious avoiding behaviours eg claustrophobia

Question 17

describe Mowrer’s model in explaining phobias

Answer 17

process 1 - initiation classical conditioning for example a phobia of dogs.
when associated with a bite (UCS) turns into the CR of fear to seeing a dog CS which was previously a NS
process 2 - maintenance operant conditioning for example avoiding the phobic stimulus reduces fear and is therefore rewarding making it more likely for a individual to avoid their phobia (negative reinforcement)

Question 18

evaluate mowrers 2 way process model

Answer 18

+ supporting study little albert by watson and raynor created a phobia of rats in 11 month old TMB it suggests that phobias can be created from a unfortunate event therefore increases the validity
- biological preparedness seligman suggests we have ancient fears such as heights and strangers which have come from evolution and survival TMB not all phobias derive from a traumatic experience
-diathesis stress model for example mowrers model cant explain generic vulnerability diathesis (every one born with genetic vulnerability) stress (environmental factors) that trigger the genetic vulnerability

Question 19

what is systematic desensitisation?

Answer 19

when a client is gradually exposed their phobic stimulus under relaxed conditions until te anxiety is extinguished

Question 20

what 3 components makes up for systematic desensitisation

Answer 20

• fear hierarchy gradual steps determined by patient and therapist from least to most fearful
  -relaxation training patient taught deep muscle relaxation and breathes cant move onto next stage until fully relaxed
  -reciprocal inhibition based on the theory that no 2 opposite emotions can be felt a once

Question 21

what is flooding

Answer 21

a client is exposed to the phobia at its worst. A long session until the anxiety reaction has disappeared after being taught how to relax. this can either be vivo (real) or virtual reality

Question 22

evaluation of systematic desensitisation

Answer 22

+ supporting Mcgrath study 75% responded to treatment
- not appropriate for all phobias ohman suggested SD might be as useful for evolutionary survival components eg fear of the dark TMB it suggests SD only effective for some phobias

Question 23

evaluation for flooding

Answer 23

• individual difference flooding isnt an appropriate treatment for everyone for example it is highly traumatic process therefore would limit the effectiveness of the therapy
  +effectiveness craske et al in 2008 found SD and flooding were equally useful TMB it suggests that flooding is an effective treatment

Question 24

2 explainations for depression

Answer 24

• becks negative triad
  -Ellis ABC model

Question 25

describe Ellis’ ABC model

Answer 25

A- activating event
B- beliefs (irrational)
C- consequence eg unhealthy emotion
musturbatory thinking - thinking that certain ideas must be true in order for an individual to be happy eg i must be accepted by people to be happy

Question 26

describe Becks negative triad

Answer 26

depressed people have acquired a negative schema these led to cognitive biases for example labelling oneself “i am worthless”
negative triad - negative expectations about the self , world and future led to depression

Question 27

evaluation for explainations of depression

Answer 27

+ supporting study Bates et al he gave depressed participants negative automatic statements he found that they became more depressed TMB it supports the view that negative thinking can led to depression
- ignores other factors such as low levels of serotonin additionally Zhang et al found a gene 10 times more common in depressed patients TMB it can be argued the explainations arnt full
+real world application led to the treatment of CBT TMB it is helping people therefore suggests its effective

Question 28

describe CBT

Answer 28

-challenging irrational thoughts
Disputing / challenging
Effects of disputing
F new feelings that are produced
-Homework assignments that test irrational beliefs against reality
- behavioural actions encouraging patients to be active and peruse usually hobbies
-unconditional positive regard facilitates a change in attitude by therapist showing their value as a person

Question 29

evaluation of CBT

Answer 29

+ supporting study Ellis found 90% effective with 27 sessions supporting research
- individual differences takes a lot of effort for patient to do homework and do a thought diary TMB individual differences effect its effectiveness
+ support for behavioural action babyak et al studied 156 either assigned either sports drugs or all. the ones with all showed significant improvement over 4 months TMB change in behaviour can be benificial to treating depression

Question 30

genetic explaination to OCD

Answer 30

-Genetic explanations for OCD suggest that individuals inherit specific genes that cause OCD. Two genes that have been linked to OCD are the COMT gene and SERT gene. The SERT gene (also known as the 5-HTT gene) affects the transport of serotonin and can cause lower levels of serotonin, which is also associated with OCD. COMT is responsible for dopamine and low activity of the COMT gene is also associated with OCD. It is also believed that OCD is a polygenic condition, which means that several genes are involved.
- diathesis stress model gentic predisposition of genes + environmental factors trigger OCD

Question 31

Neural factors to OCD

Answer 31

-high levels of dopamine induce sterotypical movements resembling compulsive behaviour found in OCD patients
-low levels of serotonin found in OCD
-basal ganglia when damaged affects the coordination of movement which induce sterotypical movements resembling compulsive behaviour found in OCD patients
-obitofrontal cortex coverts sensory information into actions/ behaviours if it has higher activity may lead to intrusive thoughts and obsessions

Question 32

evaluation to explainations to OCD

Answer 32

+ supporting twin study Nestadt et al found that monozygotic twins had a concorance rate of 68% whereas dizygotic twins had 31% TMB the fact that MZ share 100% genes shows there is a genetic componant to OCD
+ real life application women can have eggs screened and turn certain genes off TMB suggests that specific genes can cause OCD
-biological approach iggnores the diathesis stress model could be caused by classical conditions eg dirt NS and illness UCS TMB not a full explaination

Question 33

drugs therapy for OCD

Answer 33

-antidepressants SSRIs (prozac)
-tricyclics brand name anafranil
-anti anxiety valium

Question 34

how do SSRIs treat OCD

Answer 34

SSRI’s block the re-uptake of serotonin at the pre-synaptic membrane increasing the serotonin concentration at receptor sites on the post synaptic membrane

Question 35

how do tricyclics treat OCD

Answer 35

work the same as sSRI’s but also do the same with Noradrenaline a nuerotransmittor involved in autonomic system eg heart rate these have big side effects

Question 36

how do anti anxiety drugs work to treat OCD

Answer 36

slows down central nervous system and enhances activity of GABA neurotransmitter therefore quietening effect of nuerons on the brain. it increases the flow of chloride ions making it harder for nueron to be stimulated making people feel relaxed

Question 37

evaluation of treatments to OCD

Answer 37

-not a lasting cure may work in the short term but doesnt cure the underlying cure for OCD
-side effects for SSRis are nausea headache and insomnia TMB harsh side effects and possablity of addiction limit drugs usefullness
+Soomro reviewd 17 cases of drug vs placebo and drug was more effective in reducing symptoms TMB shown to be effective