memory

Question 1

Peterson and Peterson - 6

Answer 1

• Duration of STM
  -24 students/ 8 trials
  -given a consonant syllable and 3 digit number (THX 512)
  -Recall after 3,6,9,12,15,18 eps
  -Counted backwards during interval
  -3secs 90%, 18 secs 2%

Question 2

miller 5

Answer 2

-capacity of STM
-memorable article called “the magic number 7+- 2
-STM stores info as chunks
-people can count 7 items on screen but not much more
- eg a phone number chunks of 4

Question 3

Barrack -6

Answer 3

-Duration of LTM
-392 university graduates
-asked to match names to to high school yearbook pictures
-90% able to recall after 14 years
-60% after 47 years
-lifetime duration ( at least 47 years)

Question 4

Baddeley

Answer 4

Group 1- acoustically similar
Group 2- acoustically dissimilar
Group 3- semantically similar
Group 4- semantically dissimilar

They had to recall them in the correct order.

STM recall was immediate. They did worse with acoustically similar words.

LTM recall was after 20 minutes. They did worse with semantically similar words.

-this suggests that information is coded semantically in the long-term memory. + STM is coded acoustically

Question 5

jacobs - 5

Answer 5

• capacity of STM
  -Participants were given 4 digits
• asked to recall them out loud in the correct order.
  -The number of digits increased until the participant was unable to recall the order correctly.

-Mean digit span-9.3 items

-Mean letter span-7.3

-only 9 digits yet 26 letters

Question 6

define capacity

Answer 6

a measure of how much can be held in memory represented in terms of bits of memory eg number of digits

Question 7

define coding

Answer 7

The way information is changed so that it can be stored in memory information enters the brain via senses eg ears and stored in various forms such as acoustic codes (sounds) semantic codes ( meaning of experience) or visual codes (picture)

Question 8

define duration

Answer 8

how long a memory lasts for before it is no longer available

Question 9

define long term memory

Answer 9

memory for events that happened in the past lasts from 2 minutes 100 years. LTM has potentially unlimited duration and capacity and tends to be coded semantically

Question 10

define short term memory

Answer 10

immediate events measured in seconds and minutes. They disappear unless rehearsed. Sam limited capacity of 4 chunks and tends to be coded acoustically

Question 11

define multi store model

Answer 11

an explanation of memory based on three separate memory stores and how information is transferred between these stores

Question 12

define sensory register

Answer 12

information collected by your senses eg ears and retained very brief period although capacity is very large the method of coding depends on the sense involved

Question 13

define central executive

Answer 13

monitors and coordinates all other mental functions in working memory

Question 14

define episodic buffer

Answer 14

receives input from many sources, temporarily stores this information and then integrates it in order to construct a mental episode of what happend

Question 15

define phonological loop

Answer 15

codes speech sounds in working memory typically involving maintenance rehearsal eg reapting words over again

Question 16

define visa-spatial sketchpad

Answer 16

codes visual information in terms of separate objects as well as the arrangement of these objects in ones visual field

Question 17

define working memory model

Answer 17

an explanation of the memory used when working on a task each store is qualitatively different

Question 18

define episodic memory

Answer 18

personal memory of events such as what you did yesterday or a teacher you liked. This kind of memory includes contextual details plus emotional tone

Question 19

define procedural memory

Answer 19

memory for how to do things for example riding a bicycle or learning how to read such memories are automatic as the result of repeated practice

Question 20

define semantic memory

Answer 20

shared memories for facts and knowledge these memories may be concrete such as knowing that ice is made of water or abstract such as mathematical knowledge

Question 21

define interference

Answer 21

an explanation for forgetting in terms of one memory disrupting the ability to recall another this is most likely to occur when two memories have some similarity

Question 22

define proactive interference

Answer 22

past learning interferences with current attempt to learn something

Question 23

define retroactive interference

Answer 23

current attempts to learn something interferes with past learning

Question 24

define cues

Answer 24

are things that serve as a reminder they may meaningfully link to the material to be remembered or may not be meaningfully linked such as environmental cues (room) or cues related to your mental state (being sad or drunk)

Question 25

define retrieval failure

Answer 25

occurs due to the absence of cues an explanation for forgetting based on the idea that the issue relates to being able to retrieval a memory that is available but not accessible retrieval depends on using cues

Question 25

define eyewitness testimony

Answer 25

the evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime with a view of identifying the perpetrator of the crime

Question 26

define leading question

Answer 26

a question that either by its form content suggests to the witness what answer is desired or leads him/her to the desired answer

Question 27

define misleading question

Answer 27

supplying information that may lead to a witness’ memory for a crime to be altered

Question 28

define post event discussion

Answer 28

a conversation between co-witnesses or an interviewer and an eyewitness after a crime has taken place which may contaminate a witness’ memory for the event

Question 29

define anxiety

Answer 29

an unpleasant emotional state that is often accompanied by increased heart rate and rapid breathing

Question 30

define cognitive interview

Answer 30

a police technique for interviewing witnesses’ to a crime which encourages them to recreate the original context of the crime in order to increase the accessibility of stored information because our memory is made up of a network of associations rather than discrete events memories are accessed using multiple retrieval strategies

Question 31

Evaluate short and long term memory

Answer 31

• millers original findings not replicated eg Cowan reviewed studies concluding that STM is limited to 4 chunks this suggest lower end of millers range is more appropriate 7-2=5 TMB STM may not be extensive as previously thought
  -Testing STM was artificial eg remembering constant syllables doesn’t reflect everyday memory activities fairly meaningless therefore people don’t have as much motivation to recall eg postcodes more better TMB evidence doesn’t generalise to relevance of normal life
  + The size of chunk matter eg Simon found shorter memory span for larger chunks eg 8 word phrases rather than one syllable works TMB supports the view STM in limited in capacity and makes it easier to reherse

Question 32

draw the multi store model

Answer 32

page 46

Question 33

sensory register

Answer 33

Information is held at each os the senses for example eyes, ears, nose, fingers and tongue
Capacity very large but receives no attention
Duration brief (milliseconds)
Coding modality-specific, i.e. whichever sense is registered will match the way it is consequently held (for instance, iconic as visual).

Question 34

attention multi store model

Answer 34

If ones attention is focused on one of the sensory stores then the data is transferred to short-term memory. Attention is the first step in remembering something

Question 35

STM in multi store model

Answer 35

information is held in STM so it can be used for immediate tasks such as working out a maths problem
coding stored acoustically (by sound)
duration around 18 seconds
capacity 7+/- 2 5-9 items

Question 36

maintenance rehearsal multistage model

Answer 36

also known as verbal repetition eventually transfers information into long-term memory
more information rehoused more it is remembered

Question 37

LTM in multi store model

Answer 37

duration potentially unlimited
coding encoded semantically via its meaning
capacity unlimited capacity

Question 38

who discovered multi store model

Answer 38

Atkinson + shiffrin

Question 39

evaluate multi store model

Answer 39

+MSM has supporting case studies eg HM had operation to remove hippocampus to treat severe epilepsy. His personality and intellect remained however he was unable to form new LTM TMB supports notion of separate stores unable to transfer his STM to LTM but could retrieve info before surgery
+ supporting lab controlled studies eg Beardsley prefrontal cortex active in STM but hippocampus active in LTM TMB different stores
- MSM too simple
WMM STM divided into different stores TMB too simplistic

Question 40

who developed working memory model

Answer 40

baddeley and hitch as they felt STM has a number of different stores

Question 41

draw working memory model

Answer 41

page 48

Question 42

central executive in WMM

Answer 42

known as the ‘boss’ by controlling attention and directs information to the 2 slave systems it has very limited capacity and can’t attend to too many things ta once and has no capacity for storing data

Question 43

phonological loop in WMM
2 components

Answer 43

limited capacity and deals with auditory information and has 2 subcomponents
-articulatory control process (inervoice) allows for sub-vocal repetition of ideas in the phonological stores known as maintenance rehearsal
-phonological store (inner ear)
stores acoustic items speech based sounds for a short period of time

Question 44

visuo-spatial sketchpad
2 x sub-component

Answer 44

deals with visual (what things look like) and the spatial tasks (physical relationship between things like planning a journey to school in ur head + sub-component
-inner scribe deals with spatial relationship between objects
-visual cache stores visual information eg form shape colour

Question 45

episodic buffer

Answer 45

binds and integrates information from all of the other components and sends information to the long-term memory store

Question 46

dual task performance in WMM

Answer 46

-if you do 2 things at once and they are both visual/auditory tasks you will perform them less well because they will be overload the component they are using eg visual spatial sketchpad
-if you do 2 things at the same time and one is visual one is auditory there is no interference you can do them as well simultaneously as separately because they use different components of STM

Question 47

evaluate WMM

Answer 47

-problem with using case studies firstly brain injury is traumatic which changes behaviour so people may perform worse on tasks find it difficultto focus and are unique and can’t be generalised TMB key reserch to support WMM is based on case studies
+dual processing baddeley et al difficult to track a light and describing letter F they have different slave system poses no competition TMB TMB central executive a component
-central executive too vague eg too simplistic can’t be used to explain results EVR cerebral tumour removed
intact= tests requiring reasoning
not intact = poor decision making spent hours choosing what to eat

Question 48

episodic memory

Answer 48

personal experience eg recollection of first day of school recall time place or event
explicit
brain region = hippocampus

Question 49

semantic memory

Answer 49

knowledge about the world that is shared by everyone eg maths 2 +2 = 4
explicit
brain region = temporal lobe

Question 50

procedural memory

Answer 50

performed tasks or skills eg muscle memory knowing how to tie shoelaces acquired through practice is autonomic
implicit =
brain region = cerebellum and motor cortex

Question 51

evaluate types of LTM

Answer 51

-evidence from HM eg hippocampus removed could still form procedural memories but not episodic or semantic memories eg learned mirror drawing TMB episodic memory localised to hippocampus and difference in memories
+ evidence from brain scans epidemic memory = hippocampus semantic = temporal procedural = cerebellum TMB three different activation of brain regions implying 3 types of LTM
- problems with evidence from patients with brain damage difficult to be certain of exact parts of the brain affected until they die damage doesn’t necessarily mean its responsible TMB cannot establish a casual relationship between brain region and type of LTM

Question 52

foreggeting explanation - retrieval failure

Answer 52

forgetting in LTM due to retrieval failure information is available but you can’t access it when u have insufficient cues eg environmental cues or mental cues

Question 53

encoding specificity what is it who created it

Answer 53

Tulving and Thompson
- memory is most effective if the information that is present at learning is also present at the time of retrieval therefore more cues (explicitly or implicitly) exposed to more likely they are to remember as they are more meaningful

Question 54

context dependent forgetting

Answer 54

the environement during learning act as a cue forgetting may occur if the environement during recall is different for example Abernathy showed their students in their usually room by their own instructor scored better than those tested by a different instructor

Question 55

state dependent forgetting

Answer 55

The mental state you are in at the time of learning can also act as a cue eg Goodwin found male volunteers who were drunk learning and recall scored better in recall of words from a list than those sober at recall

Question 56

tulving and Thompson (5)

Answer 56

-value of retrieval cues
-pp’s learned 48 words belonging to 12 categories
-each word presented as category - work eg fruit apple
-2 recall conditions 1= free recall 2= cued recall had category names
1= 40% recall
2=60% recall
-because the cue had a meaningful link to learning material acted as a cue for memory

Question 57

godden and baddeley

Answer 57

-investigated effect of contextual cues
-scuba divers to learn a set of words either on land or underwater and therefore tested either on land or underwater 4 conditions therefore
-highest recall same condition eg land and land = 13 mean score

Question 58

evaluate retrieval forgetting

Answer 58

+ real world application
improved recall for exams smith suggests even imagining room during recall might just be as effective (mental reinstatement) as important aspect in cognitive interview TMB suggests strategies to improve recall in real-world situations eg exams or eyewitness testimony
- however retrieval cues don’t always work info is related to lots of cues complex associations called outshining hypothesis cues effectiveness decreased by other cues TMB can explain instanced of everyday forgetting but don’t explain everything
+lots of research support
eg tulving and pearl stone lab experiment importance of retrieval cues TMB empirical data received in a controlled environment no extraneous variables

Question 59

interference

Answer 59

We forget things because ones memory has disrupted or interfered with another memory

Question 59

proactive interference

Answer 59

your old memories (knowledge of old phone number) were interfering with you ability to form a new memory (knowledge on new phone number) and numbers with get confused leading to loss of memory

Question 60

retroactive interference

Answer 60

recent learning disrupting [ast learning eg a new topic in psychology at the end of the year interfering with earlier topics learned

Question 61

muller Pilzecker

Answer 61

-identifies retroactive interference
-nonsense syllables to learn for 6 minutes
2 conditions 1= intervening task shown 3 landscape paintings and asked to describe them
2= none
-performance was less good in condition 1 because the intervening task interfered with what had previous

Question 62

underwood

Answer 62

-significance of proactive interference
pls who memories 10 word lists after 24 hours remembered about 20% for those who learned 1 lust had 70 % recall

Question 63

baddeley and hitch

Answer 63

-investigated interference in everyday setting in rugby
-players in a Rigby team that has played more games in a season forgot the names of more teams they had played against
-more interference of memories

Question 64

evaluate interference

Answer 64

-research into interference is quite artificial eg most research contains artificial lists of words or syllables therefore not relevant to everyday uses of memory therefore pp’s have lack of motivation to remember therefore interference effects appear to be stronger TMB research is low ecological validity
+however interference has been seen to have been used in everyday life eg baddeley and hitch found decay theory wasn’t correct hose who were injurged remembered more team names as therefore wasn’t disreption TMB not artificial and is relevant
+Interference has real world application eg Danaher found recognition of advertisers messages were impaired when exposed to 2 advertisements for competing brands within a week suggest memory for adverts can be enhanced by multiple exposure a day TMB interference research can maximise effectiveness of campaigns and their spending most effectively

Question 65

what stages does a eyewitness testimony go through

Answer 65

-witness encodes details of event into LTM it may only be partial due to speed of event
-witness retains information for a period of time memories may be lost modified and other memories may interfere
-witness retrieves memory from storage the presence/absense of retrieval cues and that nature of questioning may affect accuracy of recall

Question 66

Loftus and palmer

Answer 66

-45 students shown 7 films of different traffic accidents
-after each film were a question about film
-one critical question “how fast were the cars going when they hit each other ?” other groups given verbs: smashed, collided, bumped and contacted
-smashed = 40.8 mean mph
-contacted 31.8 mph

Question 67

Loftus and palmer 2nd experiment

Answer 67

-different pp’s divide into 3 groups
-shown film of car accident and again asked about speed
-returned after a week
-“did you see any broken glass” critical question
-no broken glass but presumably faster travelling there would be broken glass
-smashed 16 said yes
-control 44 said no

Question 68

post event discussion

Answer 68

memory of event can be altered or contained by discussions of events with others and/or being questioned multiple times

Question 69

conformity effect

Answer 69

co-witnesses may reach a consensus view of what happened eg gabbers et al showed a very high percentage of witnesses 71% who had discussed a video clip with partner (they all viewed a slightly different of the same event) went on to mistakenly recall items acquired during the discussion

Question 70

repeat interviewing

Answer 70

each time an eyewitness is interviewed there is the possibility that comments from the interviewer will become incorporated into their recollection an interviewer may also use leading questions

Question 71

evaluate misleading information

Answer 71

+real world application eg investigation EWT applied to criminal justice system used to identify problems with eyewitness identification evidence. recent DNA exoneration shown to be the largest single factor contributing to conviction of innocent people TMB importantancr of EWT
-may be response bias
eg bekerian and bowers replicated Loftus study and found pp’s not susceptible to misleading as questions were given is same order TMB memory change may be due to response bias not storage alternative explanations
+Supporting evidence eg Braun college students who went island as a kid either in bugs bunny (not Disney) or Ariel (not introduced condition were more likely to report shaking their hand than control group TMB powerful creating false memories

Question 72

weapon focus effect

Answer 72

anxiety can have a negative effect on memory as well as performance generally one explanation is weapon focus effect when a weapon is used to threaten a victim their attention is likely to focus on it consequently their recall of other information is likely to be poor

Question 73

Johnstone and Scott NEGATIVE

Answer 73

asked participants to sit in a waiting room where they heard an argument in an waiting room they saw a man running through the room carrying either a pen covered in grease (low anxiety) or knife covered In blood (high anxiety) and were asked to identify the man from a set of photographs mean accuracy for pen 49% 33% for knife

Question 74

postive effects of anxiety

Answer 74

-anxiety can create more enduring and accurate memories which may be adaptive to aid survival

Question 75

Christian and hubinette

Answer 75

interviewed 58 witnesses to a real bank robberies in Sweden 4-15 months after the robberies they found that bank tellers (high anxiety) had better recall than bystanders (low anxiety)

Question 76

evaluate anxiety in EWT

Answer 76

+ Yerkes Dodson effect memory most effective at moderate arousal levels explaining variety of accuracy in different studies if a witness was in a state of extremely low or high arousal then recall may be poor
-weapon focus may not be caused by anxiety eg pickle reduced accuracy in info may be due to surprise rather than anxiety pp’s watch a thief enter a hairdressers carrying scissors (high threat, low surprise), handgun (high threat high surprise), wallet (low threat low surprise) and raw chicken (low threat high surprise) identification was most high threat and least in high surprise TMB weapon focus effect related to surprise
-johnstone and Scott can’t artificially create anxiety not in comparison to real eye-witnesses

Question 77

who developed cognitive interview

Answer 77

geiselman et al developed an interview technique which was based on proven psychological principles concerning effective memory recall

Question 78

mental reinstatement of original context

Answer 78

The interviewer encourages the interview to mentally recreate the physical and psychological environment of the original incident the aim is to make the memories accessible
for example “Think back to the day the event happened think about what you were doing that day what objects were there

Question 79

report everything

Answer 79

encourages the reporting of every single detail of the event without editing anything out even if it seems irrelevant eg please do not leave anything out I am interested in absolutely everything you remember

Question 80

change the order

Answer 80

interviewer may try alternative ways through timeline of incident eg reversing order of events to avoid pre-existing schema I would like u to tell me what happened backwards

Question 81

change perspective

Answer 81

interviewee asked to recall the incident from multiple perspectives for example by imagining how it would have appeared to other witnesses this is again done to disrupt the schemas
“try remember the incident from the point of view of the person in front of you describe what he/she would of seen”

Question 82

evaluate cognitive interview

Answer 82

+reserch support for effectiveness eg Kohnken et al meta analysis of 53 studies 34% increase in correct info generated Milne and bull higher recall when report everything and mental reinstatement paired together TMB imports effectiveness of EWT
-May only increase quantity not quality eg Kohnken found 61% increase in incorrect information when CI was used to compare to standard interview TMB may not always be as effective if information giving isn’t accurate
- hard to judge effectiveness of CI effectively often has collection of different techniques some employed by some forces others not eg thames valley police doesn’t include “changing perspective as a component TMB not a standardised uniform system different operations have different outcomes