Psychology 3 Flashcards

Question

Theories of Personality * Humanistic Personality Theories Describe George Kelly's **"Personal Construct Theory"**

Answer 1

_GEORGE KELLY: **Personal Construct Theory**_ * Personality is composed of the various **mental constructs** * **--**through which each person **views reality**

Answer 2

**Humanistic Personality Theories** * Personality consists of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves * ...as we strive to reach our **individual needs and goals** (i.e., self-actualization) Fundamental to humanism is the idea that **people are inherently good**

Answer 3

**_Karen Horney_** * was another **Neo**-Freudian who parted with Freud’s views on a number of counts * For one, Horney refused to accept that sexual and aggressive urges were the key factors in determining someone’s personality * She also rejected the emphasis that Freud and his follower’s placed on the **male sex organ (she was a DICK HATER)** * As such, she took a much more **humanistic** view of personality _One of Horney’s major contributions to psychology involved her theory of **Neurosis**_ **(Basic) HOSTILITY⇒ (Basic) ANXIETY⇒ NEUROSIS, and its accompanying "NEUTORIC NEEDS" (to cope w/ anxiety)** * According to Horney, neurosis results from **basic anxiety** which results from troubles in personal relationships that stem from childhood * If a child perceives that they did not have their needs met by their parents, then they would experience **basic hostility** towards them * This hostility would serve as one **source** of the basic anxiety that they feel in other relationships * As people try to cope with this anxiety, they may *_fall into a rut_* in terms of their coping mechanisms of choice which could be construed as a series of **neurotic needs** * (e.g. the need for approval, the need for power).

Answer 4

Proposed by two cardiologists, Friedman & Rosenman, as a way to predict one’s likelihood of developing coronary artery disease * **Strongly criticized** because: * the subjects were **all** male * Early studies were funded by *_tobacco companies_* * ...who had a strong interest in the outcome **_Type A Personality_** (later changed to Type A **Behavior Pattern**) 1. Competitiveness 2. Time Urgency 3. Hostility **_Type B Personality_** (later changed to Type B **Behavior Pattern**) 1. More relaxed and reflective 2. Lower anxiety levels 3. Higher imagination/creativity

Answer 5

**_TRAIT Personality Theories:_** * Personality= Σ of **Traits** * ****broad, relatively-stable characteristics or dispositions * These theories are focused on unique **DIFFERENCES** between individuals-- * whereas Psychoanalytic or Humanistic perspectives focus more on **commonalities** among all people * e.g., common needs, common neuroses

Answer 6

Higher frequency among **WOMEN** than men * Are the **MOST COMMON** psychological disorders in the US

Answer 7

**_Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)_** THINK: *...and I'm overly paranoid Rob Lowe* * A prolonged and exaggerated **sense of worry** that has **few** or **no** verifiable causes * May be accompanied by: * an exaggerated startle reflex * trouble sleeping * headaches * nausea * fatigue * excessive sweating, etc. **_Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD)_** (a.k.a., Social Phobia) THINK: Reclusive Redditors * An overwhelming feeling of anxiety and excessive self-consciousness **in everyday social situations** * It is characterized by: * a fear of being **judged** * feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, embarrassment, humiliation, and depression * May be accompanied by: * blushing * nausea * excessive sweating * trembling * difficulty speaking, etc.

Answer 8

**_Specific Phobia_** THINK: *"OMG I'm afraid of **_spiders_**!!!!!"* * An irrational and excessive fear of: * an **object** or **situation** * May be accompanied by: * dizziness * nausea * difficulty breathing * a sense of unreality * a fear of dying * In extreme cases, it can induce..... * a **FULL-SCALE ANXIETY ATTACK!!!!!** **_Agoraphobia_** THINK: *"I'm afraid of **_crowds"_*** * A persistent fear of any **place** or circumstance * ...from which **escape** might be **difficult** * Individuals are **usually** fearful of being: * **outside** of their homes * traveling in a car * in a crowd, or * in public spaces * May be accompanied by: * depressed mood * anxiousness * fearful behaviors, or * panic attacks

Answer 9

1. Bipolar disorder 2. Schizophrenia 3. Dissociative identity disorder 4. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) 5. Avoidant personality disorder 6. Histrionic personality disorder 7. Parkinson’s disease

Answer 10

The DSM-5 lists the following as diagnostic criteria for **_Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID):_** THINK: *Me, Myself, & Irene* 1. Disruption of identity with **2 or more DISTINCT personalities**, as: 1. *Observed* by _others_ or 2. As *reported* by the _patient_ 2. Recurrent periods of **AMNESIA** for both: * _Everyday_ events and * Important _personal_ experiences 3. These disturbances fall **outside** of: * cultural/religious practices * imaginary play of children 4. The disturbances have caused significant **impairment** in the individual’s: * **occupational** or **social** functioning 5. The disturbance is **not** due to drug use or some other medical condition

Answer 11

**_Cluster A_** ## Footnote * Notice that all disorders in this cluster have a very common general description pertaining to either **_DISRUPTIVE_** or **_DISTORTED_** patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning 1. Paranoid Personality Disorder 2. Schizo**typal** Personality Disorder 3. Schiz**oid** Personality Disorder

Answer 12

**_Histrionic Personality Disorder_** THINK: *Robin Grigg's behavior in Taiwan* * Characterized by: * excessive but ***shallow*** emotions * **attention-seeking** * **manipulative** behavior * May be accompanied by: * **fleeting** moods, opinions or beliefs * excessive **suggestibility** * a desire for others to **witness** their emotional outbursts * **exaggeration** of symptoms * threats of suicide *...as a form of **MANIPULATION*** **_Narcissistic Personality Disorder_** THINK: *Kanye West* * Characterized by: * an excessive sense of **self- importance** * an extreme preoccupation with **oneself** * and a **lack of empathy** for others * May be accompanied by: * A constant **need** for * **attention** * **affirmation** * **praise** * A belief that one is “**special**” and should ***ONLY*** associate with others of the **same** caliber * **Fantasies** about success and power * A sense of **entitlement** * Expectations of **special** treatment EX: A man's mother died on a Thursday and on Saturday his wife had the annual picnic for her office. She demanded that her husband and children go to the picnic i**n spite of their** grief and act happy and not talk about Grandma dying **in order to make a good impression** on her coworkers (make **HER** look good. Doesnt give a crap about her family)

Answer 13

**_Avoidant Personality Disorder_** THINK: Socially anxious Redditor * Characterized by: * extreme **shyness** * **sensitivity** to criticism and rejection * **low** self-esteem, * **avoidance** of social situations— * including **school** or **work** * Individuals may **desire** closeness with others, but have difficulty forming relationships **outside** of their immediate family **_Dependent Personality Disorder_** THINK: **Kaila Bravo** from high school * Characterized by: * a chronic, pervasive pattern of dependent, **submissive**, and **NEEDY** behavior * Individuals may seek **_excessive_**: * approval * advice, or * encouragement * May include: * **sensitivity** to criticism or rejection * **low** self-esteem * **low** self-confidence * an **inability** to make decision **without** others * feelings of **helplessness** * extreme **devastation** when close relationships end— * with the need to **IMMEDIATELY** begin a **new** relationship

Answer 14

_Obsessive-Compulsive **PERSONALITY** Disorder (OCPD)_ * Characterized by a chronic and significant **preoccupation** with **perfection**, **control** and **order** * May include **rigid** behaviors, **resistance** to change, **inflexibility**, **stubbornness**, and a sense of **helplessness** in uncontrollable circumstances Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and obsessive compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) are two distinct diagnoses * OCD involves obsessions that generate **anxiety** and compulsive behaviors that are engaged in an attempt to **alleviate** anxiety * These thoughts and behaviors are generally **UNWELCOME** * The experience of an individual with OC**P**D is quite different in that they tend to be preoccupied with rules, regulation, and organization * They tend to **DEMAND PERFECTION** in all of their endeavors and are quite **inflexible** in their patterns of thoughts and in the way that they approach new problems *Unlike* someone diagnosed with OCD, the OCPD individual views their perspective as an **EFFICIENT** (**"GOOD")** way to deal with the challenges of life and are **MUCH LESS LIKELY** to seek professional help to address these issues

Answer 15

**_Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)_** * A **stressor-induced** disorder developed after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event such as: * a natural disaster * violent crime, or * war * May include: * hyper-vigilance * reliving the event * anxiety * avoidance

Answer 16

1. Bio**medical** Approach 2. Bio**psychosocial** Approach

Answer 17

In order to be diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder, an individual must exhibit **obsessions AND/OR compulsions** * **Obsessions** * involve repeated occurrence of unwanted thoughts which generate significant **anxiety** such that the individual experiencing them will try to make these thoughts stop * **Compulsions** * ****are repeated patterns of behavior or thought that the individual engages in to make obsessions go away * The **purpose** of these ritualized patterns of behavior/thought is to **reduce stress** or **avoid some feared situation** **Aside** from exhibiting obsessions and/or compulsions, these disturbances are: * **Time consuming** * i.e. _at least an hour of each day_ is devoted to them * **Significant** **impairment** in the individual’s daily activities * These disturbances are **not** better explained by the use of some substance or some other medical condition * Finally, obsessions/compulsions cannot be **only** related to the symptoms of *some other disorder*

Answer 18

In order to diagnose an individual with schizophrenia, the following criteria must be met: **A)** * The individual must exhibit for _at least one month_, **two (or more)** characteristic symptoms which include: 1. Delusions 2. Hallucinations 3. Disorganized speech 4. Grossly abnormal psychomotor behavior 5. **Negative** symptoms * Losing interest in everyday activities * Feeling out of touch with family & friends, etc. * **At least one** of those symptoms has to be an **ACTIVE** symptom * i.e. delusions, hallucinations, and/or disorganized speech **B)** * The individual has experienced significant impairments in their **ability to engage in day-to-day activities** and in **interpersonal** relationships * .*..as a function of the onset of symptoms* **C)** * Signs of the disturbance are present _for at least 6 months_ * this *includes* the _1 month_ of **ACTIVE** symptoms * and may include periods of **less** pronounced symptoms that may be dominated by: * **Negative** symptoms or * **Less severe** Active symptoms **D)** * **Alternative** diagnoses (i.e. Schizoaffective and Mood Disorders) have been *ruled out* **E)** * Symptoms are **NOT** better explained by substance use and/or some **other** medical condition **F)** * Individuals with **Autistic** disorder (or another pervasive *developmental* disorder or problem with **communication)** must present: * prominent: * **Delusions or** * **Hallucinations** * ...for _at least one month_ ...in order to be diagnosed with schizophrenia

Answer 19

**_Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD)_** * Characterized by Dysthymia * which is depressive symptoms that are **not severe enough** to qualify as a MDE, but **persist most of the time** * ...for _at least two years_

Answer 20

_To be diagnosed **affirmatively**, the symptoms of almost any disorder must **cause**:_ 1. Clinically significant **distress**, OR 2. **Impairment** in **normal functioning** * familial, social, occupational, etc.

Answer 21

**_Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)_** * Mood disorder **with at least one** Major Depressive Episode (MDE) **_Major Depressive Episode (MDE)_** * Depressed mood or loss of interest in normally-enjoyable daily activities * **interferes** with normal functioning * lasts for **at least two weeks** * The MDE criteria are also an important part of diagnosing: * ***Bipolar Disorder*** **_Seasonal Affect Disorder (SAD)_** * MDD that occurs **only** at a specific time of year (season) * Usually during the winter

Answer 22

**MANIC EPISODES** * are disturbances of mood that are used to diagnose bipolar disorder * Many individuals who are diagnosed with some sort of bipolar disorder often experience **alternations** between **manic** episodes and **depressed** episodes * However, **depressed** episodes are **NOT** * part of the diagnostic criteria The **severity of the manic episode** will often dictate the specific diagnosis that is made: * For instance, individuals with full blown manic episodes are diagnosed as **BIPOLAR I** * However, if the individual experiences **less** intense mania, or **HYPOMANIA**, then they are more likely to be diagnosed as **BIPOLAR II**.

Answer 23

1. **Delusions of grandeur** have been described in individuals suffering from: * Bipolar disorder * Schizophrenia * Parkinson’s disease 2. **Depressed mood** occurs in: 1. **All** types of Depressive disorders * e.g. Major depression, Seasonal Affective Disorder, etc. 2. Bipolar disorder 3. Schizophrenia 3. **All disorders** have the potential for significant impairment of normal functioning (by definition) 4. **Hallucinations** are most often associated with: 1. Schizophrenia, 2. ...but there are reports of individuals with degenerative diseases (like Alzheimer’s disease) **also** experiencing hallucinations 5. **Loss of appetite** is often a symptom of : * Depressive disorders * Bipolar disorder 6. **Feelings of guilt** are common in: * depressive disorders * bipolar disorder 7. **Avoidance of social interaction** can be common in: * depressive disorders * bipolar disorder * schizophrenia * social anxiety disorder (SAD) * avoidant personality disorder 8. **Weight loss or gain** are associated with: * depressive disorders * bipolar disorder * anxiety disorders * e.g generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, etc. * schizophrenia 9. **Suicidal thoughts** are associated with: * depressive disorders * bipolar disorder * post-traumatic stress disorder * any number of personality disorders * schizophrenia 10. **Onset linked to trauma** is linked to: * Post-traumatic stress disorder * Dissociative identity disorder 11. **Emotional instability/ Fluctiations in mood** are linked with: * Depressive disorders * bipolar disorder * schizophrenia * histrionic personality disorder * borderline personality disorder 12. **Memory loss** is a hallmark of: * Dissociative disorders * e.g. dissociative identity disorder and dissociative amnesia * Alzheimer’s disease 13. **Impaired sensory and motor function** is associated with: * Somatic symptom disorder * Parkinson’s disease * the latter stages of Alzheimer’s disease

Answer 24

1. Positive 2. Negative 3. Positive 4. Positive 5. Positive 6. Positive 7. Negative

Answer 25

**_Prodromal phase_** of schizophrenia * is essentially **EARLY** onset of schizophrenia * At this stage, mild, nonpsychotic symptoms begin to surface * As a result, the individual in the prodromal phase may begin to exhibit behavioral differences * e.g. may lose interest in things that once brought pleasure or may begin to isolate themselves from others * ...that are a signal that **something is wrong** **_Disturbance of affect_** * Refers to the **emotional irregularities** that can occur in individuals who suffer from schizophrenia * Such disturbances can manifest themselves as: * *Inappropriate* emotionality **("Inappropriate affect")** * As significant *reductions* in emotional response **("Blunted affect")**, or * As a *complete lack of emotional responsiveness* **("****Flat affect")** * Schizophrenia is often marked by the presence of **Hallucinations** (often ***auditory*** in nature) and **Delusions** *In **both** instances, the schizophrenic is **not in touch with reality*** **DELUSIONS** ("Delusional thinking") * Often involves: * An inflated sense of self-importance or power * **("Delusions of Grandeur")** * A belief that others are plotting to hurt or control them * **("Delusions of Persecution")** * Seeing personal meaning in any variety of _mundane events_ that occur around them * **("Delusions of Reference")** * Believing that others are placing thoughts in their minds * **("Thought Insertion")** * That others have access or can hear their thoughts * **("Thought Broadcasting")** Aside from disordered patterns of thought, individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia often exhibit: * **Disorganized behavior** * ****in which they engage in **bizarre**, **pointless** behaviors Others may exhibit "**catatonia"** * ...In which they remain abnormally still for extended periods of time In some instances the individual may automatically **repeat** anything that is said by others * **("Echolalia")** Or imitate any movements made by someone else * **("Echopraxia")**

Answer 26

**NEITHER!** *What was formerly known as “hypochondriasis” was separated into these **new**, more empirical categories in DSM-5* * Somatic Symptom Disorder and Illness Anxiety Disorder have similar symptoms that could be easily confused * SSD patients * **DO** have a **verifiable** _physical symptom_ *"WTF is this (symptom)? OMG I'm worried nobody knows what it is!!!"* * IAD patients * have **anxiety** about the **POSSIBILITY** of having an undiagnosed illness, or worry they will develop one * *...but have **NO** current symptoms* *"OMG what if I'm sick?? I don't want to get sick and die OMG!! What if I get Alzheimers or something?!"*

Answer 27

**_Biomedical Approach_** * Psych disorders are caused by **biological** or **chemical** dysfunction * e.g., genetic predisposition, abnormally low hormone or neurotransmitter levels * Treatments are primarily **biochemical** * ****e.g., surgery, drugs * Considered more **narrow** by psychologists * Focused more on **relieving** symptoms **_Biopsychosocial Approach_** * Psych disorders are caused by a combination of: * **Bio**chemical Factors * e.g., genetic defect, low hormone level * **Psycho**logical Factors * ex: personality, unhealthy behaviors * **Socio**logical Factors * ex: culture, peer pressure * Treatments should include interventions in **all three** of these areas to be **most** effective * Considered more **broad** * Generally **more “accepted”** by psychologists * Focused more on **solving** underlying causes and problems

Answer 28

**_Patient A_** * A morbidly obese individual would probably be referred for gastric **bypass surgery** from someone coming from a biomedical perspective * While a healthcare provider taking a biopsychosocial approach might also recommend gastric bypass surgery, this would be done in conjunction with some sort of **psychological evaluation** and **counseling** to help the patient overcome unhealthy patterns of behavior that contributed to and maintained the morbid obesity **_Patient B_** * The patient might be treated with **antidepressant** medications and/or **medications** that would **stabilize future pregnancies** by someone coming from the biomedical perspective * Again, these things _***would** be done*_, but **IN CONJUNCTION** with **counseling** on the grief and loss felt by the woman in the biopsychosocial approach **_Patient C_** * Biomedically speaking, the patient would be treated with **medications to help lower cholesterol**. * From a biopsychosocial perspective, this drug therapy would be **combined with** an **attempt to help the patient understand and process the fear** that they might feel as a result of these experiences * In addition, they might receive **counseling** on how to reduce stress and live a healthier lifestyle in the future

Answer 29

_An enduring **pattern of personal experience** **and behavior** that:_ * **Deviates noticeably** from the expectations of one's culture, * is **pervasive** and **inflexible**, * has an onset in **adolescence** or **early adulthood,** * is **stable** over time, and * leads to **personal distress** or **impairment**

Answer 30

**_Illness Anxiety Disorder (IAD)_** THINK: *Overly worried first-time mom* * Characterized by: * **Heightened** bodily sensations * Intense **anxiousness** about the **POSSIBILITY** of an undiagnosed illness * *"What if something's wrong?!?!?!"* * Individuals may **devote** excessive **time** and **energy** to health concerns * often **obsessively researching** them * WebMD "Experts" **_Conversion Disorder_** THINK: *When someone goes BLIND with rage (**literally**!)* * Characterized by the “conversion” of psychological stress into **ACTUAL NEUROLOGICAL DEFICITS--** * ****usually numbness, paralysis, or blindness

Answer 31

* an apparent **escape from one’s identity** * ...as a means of avoiding stress* Ex: Faking your death to start a "new life"

Answer 32

**_Somatic Symptom Disorder (SSD)_** * Characterized by **physical** symptoms of illness or injury * ...that **CANNOT** **be explained** by a general medical condition or another mental disorder * Individuals often feel severe **anxiety** or **distress** about their undiagnosed condition * and are **preoccupied** with its symptoms The problem is **NOT** being fabricated by the patient, but is perceived by them as **REAL**

Answer 33

According to DSM-5, the following criteria would be used in diagnosing an individual with bipolar disorder 1. _At least 1 week_ of **abnormally elevated** or **irritated mood** * ...During which the individual also experiences _at least three_ (_four_ if mood is **only irritable**) of the following characteristics: * inflated sense of self * decreased need for sleep * increased talkativeness * racing thoughts * increased distractibility * increased psychomotor activation * excessive involvement in pleasurable, yet risky, activities 2. This change in mood: * Significantly impairs work or family functioning, **OR** * Leads to hospitalization * ...to **prevent harm to self** or **others** 3. These changes are **NOT** better explained by: * Drug use, or * Some **other** medical condition * (nothing else to blame it on)

Answer 34

**_Women_** are at **higher risk** than men ## Footnote **Family history** of Alzheimer’s is a major risk factor

Answer 35

**_Schizophrenia_** _Biological Correlates:_ * Strongly associated with **increased dopamine** levels in the brain Most anti-schizophrenic drugs are **competitive** **inhibitors** * *....that **bind dopamine receptors*** Having a family member with schizophrenia is a risk factor.

Answer 36

**_Depression_** _Biological Correlates:_ * DECREASED **monoamine** levels in the brain, that is, the **neurotransmitters**: * Serotonin * Dopamine * Norepinephrine * INCREASED **cortisol** level and **glucose** **metabolism** in the **amygdala** The **hippocampus** of chronically depressed patients **atrophies** (shrinks!) compared to healthy individuals * Having a family member with depression is a risk factor

Answer 37

**_Parkinson’s Disease_** * Parkinson’s is a **neurodegenerative** disease * Is characterized by: * slow, halting movements * tremors * muscle rigidity * a shuffling gait * **Dementia** and **language** difficulties are **common**, but **NOT ALWAYS** present _Biological Correlates:_ * **Decreased** **stimulation** of the motor cortex by the basal ganglia * due to a **decrease** in **dopamine production** * ****by the *substantia nigra* * The basal ganglia is necessary for producing **SMOOTH motor movements** Parkinson’s is often treated with L-Dopa, a precursor **changed into dopamine** in the brain

Answer 38

**_Bipolar Disorder_** _Biological Correlates:_ * INCREASED **monoamine** (**neurotransmitter**) levels in the brain Increased risk for persons with: * **Multiple sclerosis** (MS) **OR** * who have a family member with bipolar disorder

Answer 39

**_NEUROPEPTIDES_** * Neuro-active **peptides** whose **function is similar** to that of neurotransmitters * **_Endorphins_** are one example _Comparatively speaking_: * Neuro**transmitters**= * ***FASTER!!!*** * **shorter**-lived effects * Neuro**peptides**= * **S L O W E R** * **longer**-lasting effects

Answer 40

_STEM CELL THERAPY:_ * It was assumed for years that neurons never regrow; that once dead, a neuron could never be replaced * Recent research has shown that the brain of healthy individuals ***DOES* occasionally form new neurons** out of pluripotent stem cells in the CNS * cells similar to ***neurologically-bound fetal stem cells*** * This has provided hope for treating diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s* * ...and holds out the promise of someday being able to **regrow** or **replace** nerves damaged or malfunctioning in **any NEUROGENERATIVE disease or paralysis***

Answer 41

* The pituitary gland is derived from the **ectodermal** layer ("Attractoderm") * The posterior portion of the pituitary gland is derived from the **diencephalon** * The anterior pituitary actually arises from the **oral ectoderm** region

Answer 42

**_Temporal Lobe_** 1. **Hearing**/language [**2°**] 1. (primary **AUDITORY** cortex) 2. **Memory** 1. (hippocampus)

Answer 43

**_Thalamus_** * Consciousness (sleep/wake) * Relay b/t subcortical areas and cerebrum **_Hypothalamus_** * Hunger * Thirst * Emotion (2°) * Major Endocrine effects * via releasing hormones to the pituitary gland **_Basal Ganglia_** * Voluntary motor control * Procedural memory

Answer 44

**_OCCIPITAL LOBE_** 1. **VISION** * (Primary **visual cortex**)

Answer 45

**_Antisocial Personality Disorder_** THINK: Serial Killer * Persistent pattern of **disregard for** and **violation of** the rights of _others_ * May be accompanied by: * cruelty to animals * lack of concern for others * difficulty feeling empathy for others * impulsivity * aggressiveness or irritability * failure to conform to social norms, etc * Symptoms usually begin in childhood and include such things as: * setting fires * legal trouble * difficulty with authority * **Never** diagnosed **_before age 18_** * Must include **some** symptoms **before** **the age of 15** * Severe cases are further classified as a sociopath or a psychopath * Sociopath = **severe** deficit of conscience * Psychopath = **complete** lack of conscience **_Borderline Personality Disorder_** THINK: Kerri Yockey from Albertson's * Characterized by pervasive **instability** in: * Moods * Interpersonal relationships * Self-image * Behavior * This instability often **disrupts** the individual’s **sense of self-identity** * May be accompanied by: * **self-destructive** behavior * Intense episodes of: * anxiety * depression * irritability, or * anger ...when other people **fail to meet unrealistic expectations**

Answer 46

Embryological Origin= **Rhombencephalon (INFERIOR** neural tube**)** 1. Medulla Oblongata * Breathing * heart rate * Digestion 2. Pons * **sensory** and **motor** tracts b/t the **medulla and cortex** 3. Cerebellum * Balanced, refined motor movements 4. Reticular Formation * States of consciousness (sleep⇒wake)

Answer 47

Embryological Origin: **Prosencephalon (superior neural tube)** 1. Cerebral Cortex 2. Thalamus 3. Hypothalamus 4. Limbic System 5. Basal Ganglia

Answer 48

**_Parietal Lobe_** 1. Tactile **sensation** 2. **Spatial** reasoning 3. _Some_ language [**2°**] * *remember: 1° language is controlled by the _Frontal_ Lobe*

Answer 49

Embryological Origin: **MESENCEPHALON (medial neural tube)** 1. Superior Colliculi 1. **visual** motor reflexes 2. Inferior Colluculi 1. **Auditory** center 2. Hearing reflexes

Answer 50

**_Cerebral Cortex_** * Responsible for many **"higher-order" functions** * like language and information processing * Complex Perception * Cognition **_Limbic System_** * Emotion (1°) * Memory * *Hippocampus is part of the Limbic System*

Answer 51

**_Pineal Gland_** (forebrain) * Secretes melatonin * regulates sleep * receives input from retina * re: *circadian rhythms* **_Amygdala_** (forebrain, limbic system) * Emotion * motivation * *Implicit* emotional memory **_Hippocampus_** (forebrain, limbic system) * Memory consolidation (short-term⇒long-term) * *Explicit* emotional memory **_Posterior Pituitary_** (forebrain) * Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin **_Anterior Pituitary_** * FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin and GH * (mnemonic: FLAT PiG)

Answer 52

**_FRONTAL LOBE_** 1. *Conscious* **movement** * (motor cortex) 2. **Executive** functions 3. **1°** Language * (**Broca’s** area) 4. *Reasoning* 5. *Judgment* 6. *Problem-solving*, etc.

Answer 53

1. **Frontal** Lobe 2. **Parietal** Lobe 3. **Temporal** Lobe 4. **Occipital** Lobe

Answer 54

**_The Metencephalon_** * will serve as a precursor to the pons, cerebellum, and reticular formation * _Disruptions to these areas would impact:_ * **sensory-motor processing** and **coordination** * **balance**, and * the **sleep-wake cycle** **_The Myelencephalon_** * will give rise to the medulla oblongata * _which is important for basic functions like:_ * **respiration** and * **heart rate** **_The Diencephalon_** * would contain structures like the hypothalamus, thalamus, and pineal gland * It also provides connections to the peripheral NS and the endocrine system * _Disruption of these systems would involve widespread effects including_ * sensory processing * **regulation** of **peripheral NS function** * **regulation** of **endocrine function**, and * **homeostasis** **_The Telencephalon_** * contains olfactory bulbs, cerebral cortex, and the basal ganglia * _Disruption to these areas would affect:_ * **intelligence** * **language** * **motor function**, and * **sense of smell**

Answer 55

**_ACETYLCHOLINE_** * is found in both the **CNS** and the **PNS** * In the CNS, acetylcholine is involved in **arousal** and **attention** * Depletions of acetylcholine centrally is associated with the **memory deficits** associated with _Alzheimer’s disease_ * In the PNS, acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter of the **neuromuscular junction** * ****Is also found in both the **sympathetic** and **parasympathetic** divisions of the autonomic nervous system **_EPINEPHRINE_** (aka "adrenaline") * is found primarily in the PNS * Is associated with the **stress response** elicited by activation of the *sympathetic nervous system* **_NOREPINEPHRINE_** (aka "**nor**adrenaline") * is found in both the **CNS** and **PNS** * Centrally, norepinephrine is associated with **attention** and **emotional processing** * **Anxiety disorders** and **depression** are associated with decreased norepinephrine activity * Peripherally, norepinephrine contributes to the **stress response** associated with activity of the *sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system* **_DOPAMINE_** * is found in the CNS * Is associated with **sensorimotor integration** and **in reward processing** * Parkinson’s disease * Tourette’s syndrome * Huntington’s chorea, and * Schizophrenia ...are **all** associated with **abnormal activity** in the dopamine system **_SEROTONIN_** * is found in the CNS * Is associated with **homeostatic regulation** of **sleep** and **appetite** * Serotonin is also involved in **regulation of mood** * Lowered serotonin levels are associated with **depression** _**G**amma-**a**mino**b**utyric **a**cid **(GABA)**_ * is the chief **inhibitory neurotransmitter** of the CNS

Answer 56

1. **Acetylcholine** 2. **Epinephrine** * a.k.a., "Adrenaline" 3. **Norepinephrine** * a.k.a., "Noradrenaline" 4. **Dopamine** 5. **Serotonin** 6. **γ-Aminobutyric acid** *(shown below)* * a.k.a., "GABA"

Answer 57

Embryological Brain Regions= **Swellings of the NEURAL TUBE**

Answer 58

**_NON-INVASIVE:_** 1. Electroencephalography (EEG) 2. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS) 3. Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF) **_INVASIVE:_** 1. Direct Electrode Stimulation 1. (**open** cranium, during **brain surgery**) 2. Human Brain Injury Case Studies 3. Lab Animal Extirpation

Answer 59

**_Contralateral_** * literally means "opposite side" * In this context, contralateral refers to the idea that sensory and motor functions of the **left side** of the body are **processed in the right side** **of the brain** **_Ipsilateral_** * would refer to the **same** side * For example, a tumor involving the **right** side of the brain may affect vision ipsilaterally-- * that is, in the **right** eye **_The Dominant hemisphere_** * is the side of the brain that is used in controlling the **preferred arm** or leg * Most individuals are right handed * therefore, the dominant hemisphere for most people is the **left hemisphere** **_Left hemisphere_** * is also thought to be more important for **linguistic** processing in most individuals **_Right hemisphere_** * is considered the **non-dominant hemisphere** for **most** individuals, but that is not to say that the right hemisphere is not important for a variety of functions * For instance, the right hemisphere is thought to be much more important in **visuospatial** processing and in the processing of certain kinds of **emotional information**

Answer 60

_Damage to the **dominant** hemisphere would likely result in:_ * **LANGUAGE difficulties** * **loss of CONTROL of MOVEMENT** .....to the **_RIGHT_** side of the body *Assuming that for most people the* ***left** hemisphere is dominant* _Damage to the **non**-dominant hemisphere would lose:_ * Some **control of movement** * ****in the **LEFT** side of the body * Might also result in: * **difficulties in spatial navigation** * **emotional processing**

Answer 61

Inferior Neural Tube gives rise to the **SPINAL CORD** * Spinal Cord: * Reflexes * Bundled tracts to and from **peripheral** NS

Answer 62

* Individuals who suffer from congenital agenesis of the corpus callosum have **difficulty transferring information** between the two hemispheres * As a result, they experience **difficulties in problem solving** * In addition, they also exhibit: * Impaired social behavior * a variety of **sensory** impairments, and * Problems in: * muscle tone * motor behavior

Answer 63

**_Freud_** * **Driving psychic energy** of the ID * Is primarily *_sexual_* **_Jung_** * **Generalized** psychic energy * ***Not*** exclusively sexual

Answer 64

Freud * "Storage place" of **unacceptable**, **repressed** desires * **Parts** of the EGO and SUPEREGO are unconscious * As is **ALL** of the ID Jung * Storage place of repressed **memories** * ****both good **and** bad * Ego is **NOT** part of the unconscious mind * t is 100% **conscious** * _Two Subdivisions of the unconscious:_ * **Personal** unconscious * **Collective** unconscious

Answer 65

"Archetypes" are **UNIVERSAL** mental images or concepts within the collective unconscious ***...that*** influence ***behavior*** and ***thought*** *_THINK: Superman= "Hero" archetype_* * _Jung identified several different archetypes:_ 1. The **Self** 2. The **Anima**/**Animus** 3. The **Persona** 4. The **Shadow** * *_similar to Freud’s Id_* **_The Self_** * is an archetype in which the **entire mind** (both conscious and unconscious) is **unified** * _Examples_: * Circles, squares, trees and holy figures all serve as representations of the self **_The Anima_** * represents the **female** in a **male** * **Animus** represents the **male** in a **female** _Examples_: * Anima * The image of the Virgin Mary * Animus * Jesus Christ **_The Persona_** * is how one **presents themselves** to the world * _Example:_ * is often represented by the symbol of a **MASK** **_The Shadow_** * is an archetype that embodies **uncertainty** and **danger** * ****...and is often ***alluring*** in some way * _Example_: * Any **dark figure** that appears in a dream * e.g. the devil

Answer 66

JUNG'S ARCHETYPES: ## Footnote ...are **Images** and **thoughts** that have **_UNIVERSAL MEANING_** across cultures * Perhaps arising from our shared ancestral past **UNIQUE** to Jung, **NOTHING** comparable from Freud

Answer 67

**100% **_UN_**CONSCIOUS** ## Footnote * Responsible for all **instinctive** and **primitive** behaviors. * The **only** one of the three components **present from birth** * Is the **Primary** (or most important) component of personality; * the “source of all **psychic energy**” * Involves the concepts of: * **Primary Process** * **Wish Fulfillment** * **Libido**

Answer 68

The id seeks to have **all** its needs **GRATIFIED as soon as possible** _The **Primary Process******_ * Would be a way that the id **deal with the frustration** of **delayed** gratification * ...because it serves as a **memory** of the object needed for gratification * ...until the gratification could **ACTUALLY** be realized * EX: No BJ's til marriage, so you ***think about*** BJ's until your wedding day * As the ego and superego come online and actively **suppress** some of the id’s demands, a person might experience **dreams** that serve as **"****wish-fulfillment"** * ****Denied its demands, the id seeks to **satisfy** them through **unconscious thought process** * Ex: Wet Dreams

Answer 69

***_EGO_*** Operates in the: **Conscious**, **PRE**-conscious and **UN**CONSCIOUS realms * Responsible for helping the desires of the Id to be realized in a way **acceptable in _real-life_ scenarios** * Also helps **balance** the "perfectionist tendencies" of the Superego * Is **NOT** present at birth * develops *from the Id* _Includes the concepts of:_ 1. **Secondary Process** 2. The **Reality Principle**

Answer 70

**THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST** * Respondents are provided a series of **ambiguous** pictures * ...and are asked to **come up with a dramatic story** about the picture

Answer 71

**_PROJECTION_** * involves attributing ***YOUR OWN*** unwelcome thoughts/feelings to *someone else* _Example_: * *"WHY ARE YOU ANGRY?!?!"* * A teacher who **dislikes** a student may think that she **likes** the student, but insists that the student doesn’t like **HER** * A man is angry with his wife because he believes that **she** is bored in their relationship, when in fact **HE** is bored with their relationship

Answer 72

* Regression involves **reverting to patterns of behavior** that were used at **earlier** stages of life-- * in order to *_deal with stress_* _Example:_ Adults throwing temper tantrums after being denied a job promotion or a teenager sucking his/her thumb after being dumped by their significant other would be examples of regression as an ego defense mechanism

Answer 73

All of these tests are considered **projective** tests * In each situation, it is assumed that the task at hand (e.g. interpreting an ambiguous picture) would allow a clinician to **gain invaluable insight** into the test taker’s **unconscious motives** and **desires** * Although any number of ego defense mechanisms might be associated, **REPRESSION** is probably the one that people using these approaches are trying to overcome

Answer 74

**DISPLACEMENT** * involves **diverting** **unacceptable feelings** onto someone or something _***other** **than their source***_ * usually diverted onto something/someone that is **less threatening** than the source _Example_: * A child who is angry at her parents for disciplining her may bite her little sister * A man who was just fired by his boss may come home to start a fight with his neighbor

Answer 75

According to Freud, the **SUPEREGO** is comprised of both conscience and the ego ideal * The **Ego Ideal** *_sets lofty standards_* for the EGO to conform with * In other words, the ego ideal *_serves as a model_* for what a person **should** and **wants to be** * ****The **Conscience**, on the other hand, serves as a *_system of rules and admonishments_* for “**bad behavior**” * "Dang man, you shouldn't have stolen that lollipop from the candy store" * The Conscience pushes us **towards** our "Ego Ideal"

Answer 76

**_SUBLIMATION_** THINK: *Wounded Warrior Project * * (Dad dies=**BAD**, but leads to **POSITIVE** outcome)* * involves **channeling** unacceptable ("negative") thoughts or urges into **something that is more acceptable** _Examples_: * Sublimation might be used by artists who use some personal tragedy (BAD) to **energize** them to create a new work of art (Good!) * People may also use humor as a way to **channel their unacceptable thoughts** (BAD) into a lighthearted joke (Good!)

Answer 77

**WORD ASSOCIATION TEST** * Participants are provided a word and asked to provide a word that they **associate** with it _Examples_: * "Beer" * "Pong" * "Dog" * "pound"

Answer 78

**_DENIAL_** * is an **inability** to accept some reality * In situations in which individuals deny something **despite** the fact that there is an **abundance of evidence** to suggest that it **IS** true or **IS** occurring, we might say that individual is “in denial.” _Example_: * A student who has **NO** mathematical chance of passing a course, yet **studying furiously** for a final exam could be described as using denial to *_protect themselves from the reality of a poor course grade_* * Alternatively, a woman who **refuses** to recognize that her husband is having an affair **despite** clear evidence to the contrary would also be using denial as an ego defense mechanism

Answer 79

**SENTENCE COMPLETION TEST** * Respondents are provided with **beginnings** of sentences and are asked to **complete** the sentence ....in some ***_personally meaningful way_***

Answer 80

**_Provides support for:_** 1. Social cognitive theory 2. Learning 3. Modeling 4. Gender-based differences in aggression 5. Social learning theory

Answer 81

***Environment (reinforcement) ⇒ Behavior*** Therapy for negative aspects of personality or any other neuroses should focus on **operant** conditioning-- * to **reinforce** more desirable behaviors * rather than focusing on some **"underlying cause"** * ****as would be suggested by the humanists or psychoanalysts **_Token Economy_** * **Positive** behavior is **reinforced** with **tokens** * ...that can be **exchanged later** for: * Prizes * Treats, or * Other reinforcers

Answer 82

**_Social Cognitive Personality Theories:_** *First named by Alfred Bandura* * Personality is the *_result of:_* 1. Observational learning 2. Self-efficacy 3. Situational influences 4. Cognitive processes **UNIQUE ASPECTS**: (Relative to other perspectives such as Behaviorism or Humanism) 1. People learn from observing and modeling others: * **NOT** only personal experiences or conditioning * Example of this: Bobo Doll Experiment 2. People do **NOT** always apply what they have learned * **perceived** and **actual** consequences influence individual choices 3. People are most likely to **model** the behavior of someone with whom they **identify closely** 4. Self-Efficacy **directly impacts** learning * A person’s belief in **their ability** to learn and implement new behaviors is closely associated with their ability to do so

Answer 83

**_Psychoanalytic Personality Theories_** * Personality is mostly a function of **underlying**, **internal**, **unconscious** influences * The theories of **Freud** and **Jung**

Answer 84

**_TYPE THEORIST VIEW_** * Personality characteristics exist as discrete, **fixed** categories * Most people will fit into **one** category or **another** * e.g., Introverts and extroverts are **two types** of people * A **single**, or **small set** of traits defines personality type **_TRAIT THEORIST VIEW_** * Personality characteristics are part of a **larger** continuum of personality * e.g., Introversion and extroversion are traits describing ones position along a continuum * Individuals can be at **either** end, or anywhere in the **middle** * Personality is a **combination** of this and **many other** traits along **many other** continuums

Answer 85

Jung's Dichotomies: The first example of **Personality Types** 1. Extroverted vs. Introverted 2. Sensing vs. Intuiting 3. Thinking vs. Feeling Combining **Extroverted** or **Introverted** with each of the two **remaining** dichotomies gives eight (8) personality types often called **“Jung’s Eight Cognitive Processes”**

Answer 86

The **Personal unconscious** are the parts of our minds that we are **not** consciously aware of, but **do** affect our behavior * ...and can be **revealed** to us in our **dreams** * In this way, Jung’s view of the "personal unconscious" was **very similar** to Freud’s ideas about the "**un**conscious mind" * The personal unconscious is what allows us to be **creative** and **original** in our thoughts The **Collective unconscious** is the portion of the unconscious mind that is **inherited** and contains **universal themes** through all of our lives * The collective unconscious represents a **virtual repository** of **all** of human history and experience inside each of us

Answer 87

**_Freud_** * Caused by **repressed desires** *_from childhood_* * "Penis Envy" leads to female sexuality and gender identity (riiiiiiiiiiiiight.....) **_Jung_** * Caused by: 1. **Past experiences** 1. ****from childhood or adulthood 2. **Future aspirations**

Answer 88

***thinking, feeling & behaving***

Answer 89

* The **Secondary Process** is the EGO’s attempt to *_satisfy the demands_* that are represented by the *_Primary_* Process * Because the ID’s demands would often be *_inappropriate_*, the ego operates on the **Reality Principle** * ...to *_delay_* the id’s gratification until a more *_appropriate_* time

Answer 90

**_Libido_** The “**psychic energy**” created by the **survival** and **sexual** instincts It is part of the Id Was considered by Freud to be ***the driving influence of ALL behavior***

Answer 91

**_Reaction formation_** * involves behaving in ways that are in **direct contradiction** to one’s **TRUE** feelings _Example_: * I **feel** like shit, but I'm bubbly and "happy" all day long * A gay politician who actively pursues legislation to **limit** the rights of homosexuals or a teacher who **resents** a student... * yet *bends over backwards* to provide an **unfair** advantage to that student would be using "reaction formation" as an ego defense mechanism

Answer 92

**_REPRESSION_** * is an ego defense mechanism by which information is unconsciously **pushed out** of conscious awareness * While the individual may have no conscious awareness of the repressed memory, that memory **will still affect** conscious behavior _Examples_: * Sexual frustration leads to porn addiction * An individual who was sexually abused as a child may report **no memory** of the abuse, yet they have **difficulty** in forming intimate relationships as an adult * Another example of repression might involve someone who nearly died in a car accident **not** remembering the incident **itself**, but always experiencing high levels of anxiety when driving in the future

Answer 93

**RATIONALIZATION** * involves **creating excuses** * **...**to **justify** something that is **UNACCEPTABLE** _Example_: * A student who **fails** a class may claim that the class instructor was _impossible to understand_ * A woman who was just **dumped by the man of her dreams** may claim that she was _never really into him to begin with_

Answer 94

***_SUPEREGO_*** Operates in the **conscious**, **PRE**-conscious and **UN**CONSCIOUS realms * Responsible for **JUDGING** action * ...based on internalized **moral** standards * obtained from **parents** and **society** * Often called the “**perfectionist**” portion of Freud’s personality theory **FURTHER SUPPRESSES IMPULSES** of the ID * ...and *_influences the EGO_* to be more **IDEALISTIC** than **REALISTIC** * *_Develops around age five_* _Two Components:_ 1. the “**conscience**” 2. the “**ego ideal**”

Answer 95

**Rorschach inkblot test** * involves presentation of a series of inkblots to a test taker who is asked to **describe what they see** The idea is that in interpreting an **ambiguous** image, the clinician will gain invaluable insight into the test taker’s **un**conscious **motives** and **desires** * Ex: Someone who is sexually **repressed** may see more sexualized images in the inkblot than others

Answer 96

**_Freud_** * Conscious, **pre**conscious, AND **un**conscious. **_Jung_** * Conscious mind **_ONLY_**

Answer 97

Freud theorized that **as the EGO attempts to resolve anxiety** between the **ID** (instinctual) and the **SUPEREGO** (Idealistic) ....it resorts to **un**conscious **falsifications** or **distortions** called "defense mechanisms" 1. Repression 2. Regression 3. Reaction Formation 4. Denial 5. Projection 6. Displacement 7. Rationalization 8. Sublimation

Answer 98

Bobo Doll Experiment * Famous experiment in which Bandura exposed children to adults modeling aggressive and non-aggressive behavior * The aggressive adult models repeatedly punched, hit, kicked, and spoke violently to an inflatable “Bobo Doll.” * The non-aggressive models played quietly with non-aggressive toys * A control group was included with **no** models * Children were allowed to play in a similar room with the same toys after watching the models * Those exposed to the aggressive models mimicked the violent behavior toward the Bobo doll-- * While those exposed to the non-aggressive model did not **_RESULTS_**: * Boys were more aggressive than girls * Overall, children were **more** likely to model the behavior of a **same-sex model** * Girls were more likely to model the aggressive language they had seen * Boys were more likely to model the physical violence

Answer 99

**_Reciprocal Determinism_** * An **individual**, their **behavior**, AND their **environment** **...**affect ***_one another_*** * ....Rather than the environment **exclusively** influencing behavior This suggests that **individuals** can mold the environment that influences their development **_LOCUS OF CONTROL_** * One’s personal belief as to the degree to which one can control life events or outcomes **INTERNAL** Locus of Control * **I** believe **I** primarily control and determine outcomes **EXTERNAL** Locus of Control * **I** believe **external** events or influences **beyond my control** determine outcomes

Answer 100

**RAYMOND CATTELL** * Ranked **large** sample on **171 character traits** * Used **factor analysis** to reduce this to **16 traits** Resulting **“16-Personality Factor Questionnaire" (16PF)** is widely-used

Answer 101

**GORDON ALLPORT**: Individuals exhibit three basic traits or dispositions: **Cardinal trait** * This is the trait that **dominates** and shapes a person's behavior * These are the **ruling** passions/obsessions, * _Ex_: * A need for money, fame etc. **Central trait** * This is a **general** characteristic found in **some** degree in **every** person * These are the basic **building blocks** that shape most of our behavior * although they are **not as overwhelming** as Cardinal traits * _Ex_: * Honesty **Secondary trait** * These are characteristics seen **only** in **certain circumstances** (such as particular likes or dislikes that a very close friend may know) * They **MUST** be included to provide a **complete** picture of human complexity * _Ex:_ * Getting nervous when speaking in front of a crowd * Becoming impatient while waiting in line

Answer 102

1. Cardinal trait 2. Secondary trait 3. Cardinal trait 4. Central trait 5. Central trait

Answer 103

_The PEN Model⇒**“Big Five” or “Five-Factor Model of Personality” (McCrae & Costa):**_ 1. **O**penness to Experience 2. **C**onscientiousness 3. **E**xtraversion 4. **A**greeableness 5. **N**euroticism

Answer 104

**_HANS and SYBIL EYSENCK: The PEN Model_** * **P**sychoticism * **E**xtraversion * **N**euroticism **The PEN Model ⇒“Big Five” or “Five-Factor Model of Personality”** (McCrae & Costa)

Answer 105

**_Sigmund Freud_** * Believed that conscious behavior was largely driven by the conflicts that existed between the various components of the unconscious mind and the ego * Freud **would** have expected the situation to have power (since the ego deals in reality), but the **effect** of the situation on any given behavior was certainly **NOT** a primary focus of Freud’s theories **_Carl Jung_** * Jung’s focus on the power of the situation is reflected in the archetype of the **persona** * Jung believed that we often put on a good face for the world to see, yet that **may** or **may not** be reflective of the true self **_Gordon Allport_** * Allows for the situation to affect behavior in his concept of **secondary** traits * By definition, these are patterns of behavior that may only be observed in a **given situation** or context _**Albert Bandura** (and other social-cognitive theorists)_ * would have **strongly adhered** to the idea that the situation is a powerful influence in determining one’s behavior **B.F. Skinner** * would argue that the **situation is paramount** to determining one’s behavior * because the given **situation would determine** which behaviors might be reinforced and/or punished

Answer 106

**CARL JUNG** * A contemporary and supporter of Freud who later developed his own psychoanalytic perspective. Jung differed significantly from Freud in his interpretation of the following: _Had **differing** views than Freud wrt:_ 1. Libido 2. Ego 3. Unconscious 4. Behavior

Answer 107

**_Biological Personality Theory_** * Personality is predominantly the result of: * the **expression of genes** * Personality traits are the result of: * heritable **biological** characteristics **_Behavioral Personality Theory_** * Personality is: * the **sum of those behaviors** that have been reinforced over time "Father of Behaviorism" = **B.F. Skinner**

Answer 108

**_Situational Personality Theory:_** * Personality (and behavior generally) is the result of **external**, **situational** factors * --Rather than internal traits or unconscious motivations

Answer 109

The **official reference manual** mental health professionals and physicians use to **diagnose mental disorders** in the United States * The DSM-5 is based on **symptoms** ONLY, not **causes** or **treatment** Most disorders are: * a list of possible **SYMPTOMS** and * An **exact** criteria is predetermined for diagnosis * Ex: "DISORDER X= **3 or more** of the following symptoms, persisting for a period of **at least** six months..."

Answer 110

*Listed in approximate _decreasing order_ of _one-year prevalence_ among adults in the United States* 1. **Anxiety Disorders** (~ 18%) * GAD, SAD, Phobias, Panic Disorder 2. **Depressive Disorders** (~ 10%) * MDD, Bipolar, Dysthymia 3. **Substance Use Disorders** (~ 7%) 4. **Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder**,"PTSD" (~ 3.5%) 5. **Antisocial Personality Disorder**, "APD"; (~ 1.5%) 6. **Schizophrenia** (~ 1%)

Answer 111

* Jung’s Eight Cognitive Processes are the **basis** of the widely-used personality test, **_Myers-Briggs Type Inventory_** Myers-Briggs adds a fourth dichotomy: **Judging vs. Perceiving** * Each personality type is **dominant** in one of the two sides of each of the four dichotomies * resulting in *_sixteen different personality types:_* * E = Extroverted * I = Introverted * S = Sensing * **N** = I**n**tuiting * T = Thinking * F = Feeling * J = Judging * P = Perceiving * Note: The lists that follow are for illustrative purposes to show the four-letter designations given to each personality type **DO NOT memorize all 16 abbreviations** * You can **translate** them if you understand each **dichotomy** and its **abbreviation**

Answer 112

**_Paranoid Personality Disorder_** THINK: "*...**and I'm overly paranoid Robe Lowe"* * Characterized by **DISRUPTIVE** patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning _May be accompanied by:_ * pervasive **distrust** or suspicion * a feeling one is being **lied** to or exploited * a belief that friends and family are **untrustworthy** or unfaithful * attributing **hidden meaning** to everyday gestures or conversations, etc.

Answer 113

**_Schizoid Personality Disorder_** THINK: *Clint Eastwood in Gran Torino* * Characterized by **DISRUPTIVE** patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning _May be accompanied by:_ * severe **detachment** from others * little or no desire to form relationships * a sense of **indifference** to: * praise * affirmation * criticism, or * rejection, etc * These individuals **rarely participate** in fun or pleasurable activities Are described by others as **cold**, **uninterested**, **withdrawn**, or **aloof**

Answer 114

**_Schizotypal Personality Disorder_** THINK: *ECCENTRIC!* * Characterized by **DISTORTED** patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning _May be accompanied by:_ * eccentric perceptions * thoughts or behaviors * “magical thinking” * reported ability to read minds or foretell the future * talking to oneself * difficulty forming relationships * severe social anxiety, etc.

Answer 115

* Individuals with BPD tend to be emotionally unstable and impulsive ...and **threatening suicide or self-harm is COMMON** *Poor Kerri Yockey :(* * Although individuals with HPD tend to be very dramatic and manipulative, they tend **NOT** to threaten harm or suicide * They're dramatic & bitchy, but they're harmless

Answer 116

GABA is a neurotransmitter that **decreases** stress and excitatory responses So a GABA agonist should **increase** GABA * and thus **reduce** anxiety and stress EX: **ALCOHOL** is a GABA agonist

Answer 117

**_ACETYLCHOLINE_** * is found in both the **CNS** and the **PNS** * In the CNS, acetylcholine is involved in **arousal** and **attention** * Depletions of acetylcholine centrally is associated with the **memory deficits** associated with _Alzheimer’s disease_ * In the PNS, acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter of the **neuromuscular junction** * ****Is also found in both the **sympathetic** and **parasympathetic** divisions of the autonomic nervous system

Answer 118

**SUBSTANTIA NEGRA** | (part of Mesencephalon--midbrain)