Biology 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Where are the following on the kidney?
- nephron
- cortex
- medulla
- renal pelvis
- ureter
A
2
Q
Where are the glomerulus, bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, descending loop of henle, ascending loop of henle, juxtaglomerular apparatus, distal convoluted tubule, & collecting duct
A
3
Q
Describe interplay b/t: juxtaglomerular apparatus, renin-angiotensis pathway, aldosterone, and the distal convoluted tubules of the kidney
A
4
Q
Provide definitions for: Tidal volume, reserve volume, residual volume, & vital capacity
A
5
Q
Draw a Hb binding curve. Show the shape of the curve for both O2 binding and CO binding.
Demonstrate the effect of [CO2], [H+], [BPG], and temp on the O2 binding curve
A
6
Q
Draw a heart and correctly label the:
superior and inferior vena cava, right atrium, left atrium, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins, left ventricle, & aorta
A
7
Q
Where in the body are the following glands?
- Pituitary (Anterior & Posterior)
- parathyroid
- pancreas
- thyroid
- Adrenal glads (cortex & medulla)
- thyroid
A
8
Q
What regulates the anterior & posterior pituitary glands?
A
The hypothalamus
9
Q
What does the adrenal gland look like? Where is the cortex & where is the medulla?
A
10
Q
Tidal Volume
A
- volume of air that enters and exits the lungs during an average, unforced respiration
11
Q
Residual Volume
A
- amount of air left in the lungs after a FORCED, maximal exhalation
12
Q
Respiratory:
- Inspiratory & Expiratory residual volume
(IRV & ERV)
A
- Volume of additional air that can be exhaled or inhaled
after a NORMAL, UNFORCED expiration or inhalation
13
Q
vital capacity
A
- total volume of air the lungs can hold at maximum inflation, minus the residual volume (RV)
14
Q
Where does Systemic circulation flow?
A
- from left ventricle
- through arteries,
- arterioles,
- capillaries,
- venules,
- veins,
- vena cava, and back to the
- right atrium
15
Q
Where does PULMONARY circulation flow?
(5 steps)
A
RIGHT ventricle ⇒ pulmonary arteries⇒
LUNGS
⇒pulmonary veins ⇒LEFT atrium
16
Q
What makes up hemoglobin?
A
17
Q
Where in the body are the thyroid and parathyroid glands?
A
18
Q
Where are cross-sectional area cand flow rate greatest, respectively, in the circulatory system?
A
- cross-sectional area greatest in capillaries
- Velocity greatest at aorta
19
Q
the descending loop of henle
A
- travels into the very hypertonic medulla.
- This section of nephron is impermeable to salts, but VERY permeable to water.
- Water flows out of filtrate and into the medulla, concentrating the urine
20
Q
Ascending loop of henle
A
- carries filtrate out of the medulla and back into the cortex
- this portion of loop is impermeable to water and actively transports ions out of the filtrate and into the medulla.
- this “dumping” of salts into the medulla is the reason why it’s so hypertonic.
- top of ascending loop is less concentrated due to removal of the salt ions
21
Q
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
A
- section of nephron b/t top of ascending loop of henle & collecting duct
- regulates calcium, sodium, & Hydrogen []s
- MCAT wants you to focus on its SODIUM REABSORPTION
- (as regulated by aldosterone)
22
Q
Juxtaglomerular apparatus
A
- detects decreased blood pressure in the afferent arteriole-secretes renin
- eventually leads to increase blood volume & blood pressure
- this increased blood pressure provides (-) feedback on the juxtaglomerular apparatus
23
Q
Kidney: Describe the Collecting duct
A
- a # of DCTs from several different nephrons dump into a shared collecting duct
CD carries filtrate
- thru medulla toward the renal pelvis*
- CD becomes very WATER PERMEABLE in presence of ADH from posterior pituitary
24
Q
Respiratory Volumes & Capacities:
- Describe Tidal Volume (TV)
A
- volume of air that enters and exits the lungs during an average, UNFORCED respiration
25
Respiratory: Inspiratory & expiratory reserve volume (IRV & ERV)
* volume of additional air that can be exhaled or inhaled after a normal, unforced expiration or inhalation
26
Respiratory:
**Residual volume** (RV)
* the amount of air left in the lungs after a **FORCED**, **maximal** exhalation
27
Respiratory:
vital capacity (VC)
* **total** volume of air the lungs can hold at **maximum inflation**
* **minus** the residual volume (RV)
28
Function of excretory system is to...(3)
* excrete liquid & solute waste
* (like water, excess salts, nitrogenous wastes, etc)
* Maintains:
* pH
* osmolarity
* BP
29
* Aldosterone acts on ___ \_\_\_, causing (increase/decrease) in __ uptake-also causes ___ of __ in/out of the ___ \_\_\_ via what?
* Acts on distal tubule
* causing an INCREASE of Na+ uptake.
* Causes reabsorption of Na+ OUT of the collecting duct
* via insertion of Na+ and K+ channels and Na+/K+ ATPases in cells that line the collecting duct
30
What is the net effect of **Aldosterone?**
## Footnote
* Where is Aldosterone ***produced***?
**INCREASES**:
## Footnote
1. water retention
2. BP
Comes from the **ADRENAL CORTEX**
31
\_\_\_ makes the collecting duct permeable to \_\_\_?If theres none of it, what's the result?
* ADH makes the collecting duct permeable to water.
* No ADH= collecting duct impermeable to water
32
* Since the **collecting duct** passes through the highly concentrated \_\_\_,
* as soon as membrane becomes **permeable to water** (due to **what** hormone?)
## Footnote
***what** happens?*
* CD passes through highly []ed **MEDULLA**
as soon as **ADH** reaches CD:
* theres a large flow of water **OUT of the filtrate**
* results in **CONCENTRATING** of the **urine** (**increased** water retention)
33
Net effect of ADH=? 2 things
water retention and increase BP
34
Primary function of the Respiratory system is? where does this occur and how does air get there?
* GAS EXCHANGE!
* occurs in Alveoli
* inhalation & exhalation deliver air to alveoli
35
O2 diffues ___ its [] gradient into what?
DOWN its [] gradient into the blood
36
CO2 diffuses ___ its [] gradient ___ of what and into what?
DOWN its [] gradient, OUT of blood and back into lungs
37
Respiratory system: Path of air
* Mouth
* Nose
* pharynx
* larynx
* trachea
* bronchi
* bronchiloes
* alveoli
38
Diaphragm: remember 2 things
1. it moves DOWN when it is flexed and UP when relaxed
2. it moves DOWN during inhalation and UP during exhalation
39
Hemoglobin (Hb) is made up of what? What makes up that thing?
* made of 4 protein chains
* (2 alpha & 2 ß subunits)
* each alpha and ß protein has a Fe-containing "heme" group at its center
* Each heme can hold ONE O2 molecul
* THUS, 100% saturation of Hb molecule can hold 8 oxygen atoms
40
100% saturated Hb can hold (#) ___ molecules
8 oxygen molecules
41
Equation for how CO2 is carried in the blood:
CO2+H2O⇒HCO3- + H+
42
The function of the cardiovascular system is...? (2)
* Deliver O2 & nutrients to the cells & tissues
* pick up CO2 & waste products and deliver them to lungs & kidneys
43
Tricuspid valve leads to? Bicuspid valve leads to? (Travel Bolivia!)
* Tricuspid leads to Right Ventricle (Pulmonary Valve)
* Bicuspid leads to Left Ventricle (Aortic Valve)
44
Cardiovascular System: Systemic Circulation (hint: there's a path!)
* blood flows from LEFT ventricle,
* through arteries,
* arterioles,
* capillaries,
* venules,
* veins,
* vena cava, and
* back to RIGHT atrium
45
Arteries vs Veins: Which one leaves, which returns to the heart?
* Arteries leave (away from heart)
* veins return (towards heart)
46
Sympathetic nervous activity \_\_\_es HR & BP
increases
47
Parasympathetic nervous activity \_\_\_es HR & BP
decreases
48
Blood Vessels: Pathway
* Arteries
* Arterioles
* Capillaries
* Venules
* Veins
49
Define arteries
* muscular, THICK-walled vessels that PUSH blood via rhythmic contraction
50
define veins
* THIN walled vessels with **little to no musculature** that rely on a VALVE system to move blood back to heart
51
On **arterial** side of **capillary bed,** **HYDROSTATIC** ("water"+non+moving") **PRESSURE** is at its (max/min?)
## Footnote
* At the same time, ___ of blood is **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** than than of **interstitial fluid**, creating **what**?
***at its MAX!***
* **osmolarity** of blood is **GREATER** than that of interstitial fluid
* creates an **osmotic pressure**
*that **DRIVES FLUID INTO THE CAPILLARY***
52
Blood is what kind of tissue?
connective
53
What is the function of blood?
* -transport nutrients, gases, waste products & hormones to and from cells
* regulate the extracellular environment
* protect body from foreign bodies (ie antigens)
54
What is blood made of? 6 things
1. WBC's ("leukocytes")
2. RBS's ("erythrocytes")
3. antibodies ("immunoglobulins")
4. clotting factors (like fibrinogen)
5. transport proteins (like albumin)
6. platelets
55
Blood vessels: Q=AV explains inverse relationship b/t what?
velocity and cross-sectional area
56
Erythrocytes=?
-sacks of Hemoglobin, and not much else
57
What's an interesting fact about erythrocytes (RBCs)?
They start out with a nucleus & organelles, but the **disappear** as cell matures
58
Leukocytes: (2)
* No hemoglobin
* Normal cells with **ALL** their organelles involved in the immune system
59
* Granulocytes are \_\_,\_\_, and\_\_.
* These cells live for...?
* "Grandma NEB Doesnt live long"
* neutrophils
* eosinophils
* basophils
* these cells live for **hours to days**
60
* Agranulocytes (2 examples)
* how long do these cells last for?
* -monocytes (which become macrophages)
* lymphocytes
* live for **months to years**
61
* Define platelets.
* When are they sticky and not sticky?
* Membrane bound drops of cytoplasm
* are sticky when exposed to injured epithelium
* are NOT sticky when exposed to healthy epithelium
62
What happens when platelets encounter injured epithelium?
* They release chemicals that activate OTHER platelets & clotting factors
63
What are platelets derived from?
Megakaryocytes in the bone marrow
64
All blood cells develop from ___ \_\_\_ (aka "undifferentiated cells") in the bone marrow--a process called \_\_\_.
* stem cells
* hematopoesis
65
Four phenotypes of bloodwhat is universal acceptor? Universal donor?
* A,B, AB, O
* universal acceptor=AB
* universal donor=O
66
Genetically, blood type is an example of what?
* co-dominance
* (both alleles expressed equally in heterozygote)
67
For blood types, "A" and "B" indicate what?
* ANTIGENS that are present on that person's blood cell membranes
* A=A only
* B=B only
* AB=Both A and B
* O=NEITHER A nor B
68
What is the function of the lymphatic system? (3)
* -gather excess interstitial fluid & return it to the blood
* remove from interstitial fluid proteins & other molecules **TOO BIG to be taken up by capillaries**
* monitor blood & lymph for infections
69
Lymph nodes are filled with \_\_\_, which do what?
* filled with **lymphocytes**
* which monitor the blood for foreign antigens & fight infections
70
What do **Lymph vessels** look like? How do they work to move things around?
* have **one-way VALVES** used to move the lymph
* Single cells overlap slightly,
* creating a trap door that lets things **IN**, but **not OUT**
71
The **ENTIRE** lymph system drains into what **2 main vessels**?
## Footnote
* What do both of these vessels **do**?
1. **RIGHT LYMPHATIC**
2. **THORACIC DUCT**
* Both dump back **into BLOOD STREAM**
* by **merging** w/ large veins in lower portion of the neck area
72
What 5 things comprise the "**NERVOUS SYSTEM?**"
1. Brain **(CNS)**
2. Spinal cord **(CNS)**
3. **PERIPHERAL** nerves **(aka "PNS")**
4. Nerve **SUPPORT** cells
* astrocytes
* schwann cells
* ependymal cells
5. **SENSORY** organs
* eyes
* ears
73
What is a "neuron?"
a specialized cell that can carry an electrochemical signal (called an "action potential")
74
Dendrites are...
* finger-like projections from the cell body
* receive signal information from an upstream neuron, with which it **forms a SYNAPSE**
75
How do dendrites receive signal information from upstream neurons?
* Signal binds to a neurotransmitter on the post-synaptic membrane (aka the dendrite portion of the membrane)
76
Nervous system:
## Footnote
* describe the **neuron cell**
* aka the **"STOMA"***
is the main part of the neuron where the **nucleus** is located
77
Neuron:
## Footnote
* describe the **AXON HILLOCK**
* what does it have a **high []** of?
* What **effect** does this have on the region?
* Area where the **axon joins the cell body**
* has a very high [] of **VGNa+ channels**, which make it:
* 1) **sensitive** to action potentials
* 2) capable of **regenerating** a strong AP for transmission down the axon
78
Neuron:
## Footnote
* Describe the **TERMINAL BUTTON**
* ****aka the **AXON TERMINAL**
is a branch at the **end** **of the axon** that **synapses** with:
## Footnote
* the **dendrite** of the **next** neuron down the line, OR
* the **effector**
79
Neuron:describe the axon
is the long, narrow, tube-like stretch b/t the cell body and the terminal button
80
Neuron:
## Footnote
* Describe **Schwann cells**
* What do they have **high levels** of?
* What do they **wrap** themselves around?
* What's it **called** once it's done wrapping?
* are along the axon*
* are specialized neural **SUPPORT** cells.*
* have high levels of **FAT**
* wrap themselves around the axon multiple times
* wrapping creates a **"myelin sheath,**" which **insulates** the axon
81
Neuron:what are the nodes of ranvier?what significance do they have?
* small gaps b/t schwann cells
* signals are able to "jump" from one node to another, without progressing along the entire length of the axon
* this dramatically **increases transmission SPEED!**
82
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
## Footnote
* What is an **ACTION POTENTIAL?**
* What **happens** (in general) once it is made?
a dramatic **∆ in resting elec. potential** across membrane of a nerve cell
* once made, it will **move along** cell membrane to neighboring portions of the neurons
* as it does, the areas where AP originated gradually **return to resting potential** (-70mV)
83
Creation & Propagation of an AP: Define & quantify "resting potential"
* is the voltage across the membrane when an AP is NOT present
* resting potential= -70mV
84
Creation & Propagation of an AP: What does a Na+/K+ pump do?
(is an ATP pump) that actively transports 3 Na+ ions OUT of the cell & 2 K+ ions IN
85
What is the net effect of the Na+ /K+ pump during propagation of an AP?
since there's more Na+ sent OUT of the cell than K+ ions brought in, there is a more (+) charge outside of the cell, and a progressively more (-) charge inside
86
Creation & Propagation of an AP: describe voltage-gated Na+ channelswhat happens when its open?
* integral proteins that OPEN UP in response to a ∆ in resting potential across the membrane
* when open, **Na+ flows rapidly back INTO the cell**
87
Creation & Propagation of an AP: describe depolarization. what causes it?
* opening of VGNa+ channels causes a sudden spike in membrane potential
* usually from -70mV to ~+40mV
88
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
## Footnote
* Define **THRESHOLD POTENTIAL**
* Value= **\_\_mV**
* What happens if this value is **exceeded**?
* What about if that value **isn't quite reached**?
* is the **MINIMUM STIMULUS NEEDED***
* to **INITIATE** an AP*
* usually **+55mV**
_If stimulus EXCEEDS 55mV:_
* **AP follows.**
_If stimulus FAILS TO REACH +55mV:_
* mem pot. **returns to -70mV** (Resting potential)
89
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
* What are ***VG K+* channels?**
* What's a key **difference** b/t these and ***VG****Na+*** channels?
* What happens as a result of this difference?
* integral proteins that respond to*
* a ∆ in membrane potential*
_Differ from VGNa+ channels because:_
* have a **MUCH** higher threshold for responding than do **VGNa+** channels
* b/c this is the case, VGK+ channels **will only react following a VERY LARGE ∆ in membrane potential** that is a result of depolarization
This is what causes dip to ~90mV when repolarizing, because VGK+ channels are **SLOWER** to respond
90
At around **MAX** depolarization of an AP, what happens with regards to ion channels?
* Na+ channels begin to **close**
* K+ channels begin to **open**
91
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
## Footnote
* Describe **Repolarization**
* ****What happens as a result of it?
* **Quantify**"repolarization"
* Because there's more K+ ions **inside** the cell (due to Na+ K+ pump), opening of K+ channels cause K+ ions to flow **OUT** of the cell
* this causes sudden **DECREASE** in membrane potential, from **+40mV** to **-70mV***
92
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
## Footnote
* Describe **Hyperpolarization**
* **Quantify** this stage
* because K+ channels are **SLOW TO CLOSE** as membrane potential approaches -70mV:
* membrane potential actually **dips to** **-90mV** before going **back up to -70mV***
93
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
## Footnote
* Describe the **ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD**
* **When** does it occur?
* Why does it occur at **this** time?
***NO** action potential can be created,*
***no MATTER how much stimulus**!*
* Occurs during progression of AP
* which involves **depolarization** of membrane
* 2nd stimulus can't be initiated until membrane gets **repolarized**
(**no** sexy time right after blowing your load--no matter **HOW** much the "stimulus")
94
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
## Footnote
* Describe **RELATIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD**
* what's the **NAME** of the state the membrane is in **DURING** the Relative Refractory Period?
* **Why** does the RRP **need** the thing that it needs?
here, another AP **CAN** be stimulated--
but stimulus needs to be **SUPER** **HIGH!**
_State of membrane during this period:_
* time frame when membrane is **hyperpolarized**
**_Needs a larger stimulus_**
b/c its a greater jump from -**90 ⇒+55**
than from **-70 ⇒ +55**
(30 minutes after sexy time, you COULD have sex again, if the "stimulus" were sufficient)
95
What are the 2 types of synapse?
electrical and chemical
96
What is, by FAR, the slowest part of signal transduction?
Transmission across the synapse
97
Describe "**ELECTRICAL** Synapses"
## Footnote
*Where are the **only** 5 places they happen?*
are **GAP JUNCTIONS** b/t cells that
allow **electrical signals** to pass very quickly
from **cell to cell**
* only happen in:
1. retina
2. smooth muscle
3. cardiac muscle
4. Brain **(CNS)**
5. Spinal Cord **(CNS)**
98
What's the "traditional" kind of synapse that we all think about?
Chemical synapses
99
Describe chemical synapses
* are the small gaps b/t the terminal button and:
* dendrite of a subsequent neuron
* membrane or a muscle or other target (the "effector")
100
* Describe (in general) how a signal is **transmitted** from:
* the **terminal button**
* **across** the synaptic cleft, and
* to the **next neuron** in line (or to the **effector** , whichever)
AP arrives at post-synaptic cleft,
* triggers **voltage gated** **Ca2+** channels to **OPEN**
* calcium flows **into** the terminal button*
_presence of Ca2+ initiates a **cascade!**_
**neurotransmitter bundles FUSE** with **pre**synaptic membrane
* then **dump** their contents into the synaptic **cleft**
* these neurotransmitter molecules **diffuse across the gap**, and
* **BIND** to protein **receptors** on **post**-synaptic membrane
* binding of protein and neurotransmitter molecules **opens Na+ channels**
*Na+ flows **INTO** cell*
* if **enough** Na+ gets in, voltage will **reach threshold**
* and AP will be generated!
101
Synapses:How do you stop signal transduction?
specialized enzymes in synaptic cleft must BREAK DOWN the neurotransmitter to interrupt its action
102
* the **POST**-synaptic membrane will be **CONTINUOUSLY STIMULATED** as long as.....?
as long as:
**_neurotransmitter_ is present**
103
What is the most common enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholinesterase (ACh)
104
* what is an acetylcholinesterase (ACh) "**agonist**"? How about an "**antagonist**?"
* What do each do wrt **stimulation of neurons**?
Agonist=**ACTIVATES** ACh
* leads to **break down** of neurotransmitters
* **decreased** stimulation of neurons
Antagonist= **INHIBITS** ACh
* **increased** stimulation of neurons
* "an **_AG_**onist **_AG_**tivates"*
105
What do **Neural** **SUPPORT CELLS** do?
## Footnote
* Are **they** neurons?
* give 3 examples
***they are an example of ___ tissue!***
* they **ARENT neurons***
* but rather cells in the nervous system that **provide SUPPORT to** neurons*
* Ex:
* **Schwann** cells
* (oligodendrocytes, **aka "GLIAL CELLS"** in CNS)
* **Ependymal** cells
* (cells lining the cerebrospinal fluid cavities),
* **Astrocytes**
* (Structural support cell
***are an example of NERVOUS tissue!***
106
Name the **3 neuron functions**
*HINT: _____ neurons, _____ neurons, & _____ neurons*
1. **INTER**neurons,
2. Motor (**eff**erent) neurons,
3. Sensory (**aff**erent) neurons
## Footnote
**"S.A.M.E"**
107
Describe **SENSORY** (**AFFERENT**) neurons
## Footnote
* What are they **activated** by?
* Sensory neurons send \_\_\_\_\_\_s to other elements of the _____ \_\_\_\_\_,
* Ultimately conveying **SENSORY INFORMATION** to the _____ or the _____ \_\_\_\_\_
* are nerve cells that transmit sensory information (sight, sound, feeling, etc.)
* They are activated by sensory input
* send projections to other elements of the nervous system
* ultimately conveying sensory information to the brain or spinal cord.
108
describe motor (efferent) neurons
carry signals to a muscle or gland, in response to a stimulus
109
describe interneurons (2 functions and example/s)
* CONNECT motor (efferent) and sensory (afferent) neurons
* transfer and process signals
* EX: the brain and 90% of all other neurons are interneurons
110
The Nervous System is divided into what 2 categories?
Central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS)
111
The CNS includes?
1. brain
2. spinal chord
**INTERNEURONS ONLY!!!!!**
112
The PNS is divided into what 2 subcategories?
somatic & autonomic
113
PNS: Somatic nervous system -describe (3)
* is voluntary
* innervates skeletal muscle
* has sensory & motor subdivisions
114
PNS: Autonomic nervous system-describe
* **IN**voluntary
* innervates:
* cardiac muscle
* smooth muscle
* glands
* Like somatic, it has **sensory & motor** subdivisions
115
Parasympathetic NS:-describe-Where are cells located? -What neurotransmitters does it use, and where?
* "Rest & digest"
* cell bodies located **very close (or inside!) effector**
* Neurotransmitters:
* ACh ONLY
* at ganglia & effector
116
Sympathetic NS-describe-where are the cells located? -What kind of neurotransmitters does it use, and where?
* "Fight or flight"
* Cell bodies located **FAR from effectors**
* Neurotransmitters:
* uses Norepinephrine mostly (ACh too)
* at ganglia & effector
117
What does the Endocrine System include?
"endocrine glands," and the fluids & ducts into which they are released
118
EXOcrine glands release what? into where?
* release enzymes or other liquids into external environment
* Ex:
* like digestive tract, nostrils, & butt-holes
119
ENDOcrine glands release what? into what?
release hormones into the internal fluids of the body (blood or lymph)
120
Name the 3 kinds of Endocrine hormones
1. peptides
2. steroids
3. tyrosines
121
Mnemonic for anterior pituitary hormones: FLAT PG (flat pig)
* FSH
* LH
* ACTH
* TSH
* Prolactin
* GH
122
Which hormones come from:Posterior pituitary
1. ADH
2. Oxytocin
123
Which hormone(s) come from:Parathyroid
PTH (parathyroid hormone)
124
Which hormone(s) come from:Pancreas
1. Glucagon
2. Insulin
125
Which PEPTIDE hormone(s) come from:Thyroid
Calcitonin
126
Which hormone(s) come from:Embryo/Placenta
hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)
127
Which hormone(s) come from:Adrenal cortex
1. cortisol
2. aldosterone
128
Which hormone(s) come from:Gonads
1. estrogen
2. progesterone
3. testosterone
129
Which TYROSINE hormone(s) come from:Thyroid
both of which are?
1. T3
2. T4
both are **lipid-soluble**
130
Which hormone(s) come from:adrenal medullaboth of which are?
1. epinephrine
2. norepinephrine
both are **water soluble**
131
Describe what happens when a hormone is transported to an effector
* lipid-soluble hormones
* require a protein carrier or a micelle/vesicle
* peptides are water soluble
* ...so they dissolve in bloodstream
132
Describe what happens when a hormone gets to its target effector(lipid-soluble vs water soluble)
* lipid soluble act exclusively by binding on a receptor IN THE NUCLEUS & affecting transcription
* peptide hormones act on a number of different cell locations
* can't go straight to nucleus
133
* Describe membrane permeability for:
* lipid-soluble
* water-soluble hormones
once they get to their target effector
* lipid soluble
* doesnt require a cell membrane receptor--
* goes right thru the cell membrane
* They DO still require a receptor **when they act INSIDE the cell**
* Peptide hormones are hydrophilic
* ...so they need a **cell membrane receptor**
134
Briefly describe what happens in a 2nd messenger system. Usually occurs via...?
* usually occurs via a cascade.
* one hormone activates another hormone, enzyme, or other signaling molecule
* process repeats, with **SIZE of rxn and # of molecules increasing** with each step
135
Hormones always act...?
..to return to homeostatic, or "normal" conditions
136
Why is the thyroid a "special gland?"
because it secretes both a tyrosine derivative AND a peptide hormone
137
Anterior & posterior pituitary glands are both REGULATED by hormones that come from where?
Hypothalamus
138
Remember...all steroids are ___ derivatives
CHO(cholesterol)
139
ACTH
stimulates adrenal cortex to release stress hormones called "glucocorticoids"
140
LH
* surge in LH causes:
* ovulation
* stimulates secretion of sex hormones:
* estrogen
* testosterone
141
FSH
* stimulates :
* growth of follicle during menstrual cycle
* production of sperm
142
TSH
stimulates release of T3/T4 from thyroid
143
hGH
stimulates growth throughout body
144
Prolactin
stimulates milk production in breasts
145
ADH
* causes collecting duct of kidney to become highly permeable to water
* leads to concentrating of the urine
146
Oxytocin
* stimulates:
* contractions during childbirth
* milk secretion during nursing
147
Parathyroid hormone
* increases blood calcium by:
* stimulating **proliferation of osteoclasts**
* uptake of Ca2+ in gut
* reabsorption of Ca2+ in kidneys
148
Insulin
* stimulates **uptake and storage** of glucose from blood
149
Glucagon
* stimulates:
* gluconeogenesis
* release of glucose into the blood
150
Calcitonin
decreases blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts
151
hCG
prevents degeneration of corpeus luteum, maintaining pregnancy
152
Aldosterone
* increases Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion at distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
* leads to net **increase of salts in plasma**
* increasing osmotic potential
* And, subsequently **increases blood pressure**
153
Cortisol
* stress hormone
* increases gluconeogenesis in liver
* and thus increases blood glucose levels
* stimulates fat breakdown
154
Testosterone
* stimulates:
* development of secondary sex characteristics
* closing of epiphyseal plates
155
Estrogen
* stimulates:
* female sex organs
* causes:
* LH surge in menstruation
156
Progesterone
stimulates growth and maintenance of uterus during pregnancy
157
T3/T4
increases basal metabolic rate, effecting metabolism
158
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
causes response almost identical to sympathetic nervous system response
159
4 special things to remember about neurons:
1. They are stuck in G0 phase (cant divide)
2. Depend ENTIRELY on glucose for energy
3. DONT require insulin for glucose uptake
4. Have very low glycogen stores & NO oxygen storage capacity
* thus, neurons require high blood flow!
160
Immune system (ie T- cells) of blood for a blood recipient will attack...?
* any antigen that is "foreign" to it
* If person is type B, their T cells will attack AB because A is foreign
161
What do stess hormones, like \_\_\_\_\_s, do?
* like glucocorticoids (which ACTH stimulates)
* increase glugoneogenesis and fat metabolism
162
diastolic pressure
* occurs near the beginning of the cardiac cycle.
* It is the minimum pressure in the arteries when the pumping chambers of the heart — ventricles — fill with blood.
163
systolic pressure
* Near the end of the cardiac cycle
* systolic pressure, or peak pressure, occurs when the ventricles contract.
164
What does Gram negative bacteria look like? What physical proterties does it have?
* Stains pink
* has a relatively thin cell wall
* **does not** form endosomes
* contain **2 cell membranes**
* one outside the cell
* one inside the cell
165
What does gram positive bacteria look like? What physical proterties does it have?
* stains purple
* very thick cell wall
* **DOES** form endosomes
* has a **single cell membrane**
166
What is the main function of the **PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)?**
* What does it relay communication between?
* The main function of the PNS is **TO CONNECT:**
* ****the **central nervous system (CNS)**
* to the **limbs** and **organs**
*...essentially serving as a **communication relay** going **back** **and forth** between the **brain** and the **extremities***
167
**oligodendrocytes**, aka?
What part of the NS are they found in?
aka **GLIAL CELLS**
Found in the CNS
168
Both **ENDOCRINE** **AND** **NERVOUS** responses pair with **efferent/afferent** sensory information?
Which is a **faster** response: Endocrine or Nervous?
Both endocrine and nervous responses pair with **AFFERENT** sensory information
**NERVOUS** reponses are faster
than endocrine responses
169
**NEURONS** DO NOT require _____ to take up _____ as do nearly **all** other cells
Neurons DO NOT require **INSULIN** to take up **GLUCOSE**
## Footnote
*as do nearly all other cells*
170
The **SYMPATHETIC** nervous system \_\_\_\_\_\_s the pupil and the **PARASYMPATHETIC** \_\_\_\_\_\_\_s it
**SYMPATHETIC**
* *dilates* the pupil
**PARASYMPATHETIC**
* *constricts* it
