Biology 2 Flashcards
Where are the following on the kidney?
- nephron
- cortex
- medulla
- renal pelvis
- ureter
Where are the glomerulus, bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, descending loop of henle, ascending loop of henle, juxtaglomerular apparatus, distal convoluted tubule, & collecting duct
Describe interplay b/t: juxtaglomerular apparatus, renin-angiotensis pathway, aldosterone, and the distal convoluted tubules of the kidney
Provide definitions for: Tidal volume, reserve volume, residual volume, & vital capacity
Draw a Hb binding curve. Show the shape of the curve for both O2 binding and CO binding.
Demonstrate the effect of [CO2], [H+], [BPG], and temp on the O2 binding curve
Draw a heart and correctly label the:
superior and inferior vena cava, right atrium, left atrium, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins, left ventricle, & aorta
Where in the body are the following glands?
- Pituitary (Anterior & Posterior)
- parathyroid
- pancreas
- thyroid
- Adrenal glads (cortex & medulla)
- thyroid
What regulates the anterior & posterior pituitary glands?
The hypothalamus
What does the adrenal gland look like? Where is the cortex & where is the medulla?
Tidal Volume
- volume of air that enters and exits the lungs during an average, unforced respiration
Residual Volume
- amount of air left in the lungs after a FORCED, maximal exhalation
Respiratory:
- Inspiratory & Expiratory residual volume
(IRV & ERV)
- Volume of additional air that can be exhaled or inhaled
after a NORMAL, UNFORCED expiration or inhalation
vital capacity
- total volume of air the lungs can hold at maximum inflation, minus the residual volume (RV)
Where does Systemic circulation flow?
- from left ventricle
- through arteries,
- arterioles,
- capillaries,
- venules,
- veins,
- vena cava, and back to the
- right atrium
Where does PULMONARY circulation flow?
(5 steps)
RIGHT ventricle ⇒ pulmonary arteries⇒
LUNGS
⇒pulmonary veins ⇒LEFT atrium
What makes up hemoglobin?
Where in the body are the thyroid and parathyroid glands?
Where are cross-sectional area cand flow rate greatest, respectively, in the circulatory system?
- cross-sectional area greatest in capillaries
- Velocity greatest at aorta
the descending loop of henle
- travels into the very hypertonic medulla.
- This section of nephron is impermeable to salts, but VERY permeable to water.
- Water flows out of filtrate and into the medulla, concentrating the urine
Ascending loop of henle
- carries filtrate out of the medulla and back into the cortex
- this portion of loop is impermeable to water and actively transports ions out of the filtrate and into the medulla.
- this “dumping” of salts into the medulla is the reason why it’s so hypertonic.
- top of ascending loop is less concentrated due to removal of the salt ions
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
- section of nephron b/t top of ascending loop of henle & collecting duct
- regulates calcium, sodium, & Hydrogen []s
- MCAT wants you to focus on its SODIUM REABSORPTION
- (as regulated by aldosterone)
Juxtaglomerular apparatus
- detects decreased blood pressure in the afferent arteriole-secretes renin
- eventually leads to increase blood volume & blood pressure
- this increased blood pressure provides (-) feedback on the juxtaglomerular apparatus
Kidney: Describe the Collecting duct
- a # of DCTs from several different nephrons dump into a shared collecting duct
CD carries filtrate
- thru medulla toward the renal pelvis*
- CD becomes very WATER PERMEABLE in presence of ADH from posterior pituitary
Respiratory Volumes & Capacities:
- Describe Tidal Volume (TV)
- volume of air that enters and exits the lungs during an average, UNFORCED respiration
Respiratory: Inspiratory & expiratory reserve volume (IRV & ERV)
- volume of additional air that can be exhaled or inhaled after a normal, unforced expiration or inhalation
Respiratory:
Residual volume (RV)
- the amount of air left in the lungs after a FORCED, maximal exhalation
Respiratory:
vital capacity (VC)
-
total volume of air the lungs can hold at maximum inflation
- minus the residual volume (RV)
Function of excretory system is to…(3)
- excrete liquid & solute waste
- (like water, excess salts, nitrogenous wastes, etc)
- Maintains:
- pH
- osmolarity
- BP
- Aldosterone acts on ___ ___, causing (increase/decrease) in __ uptake-also causes ___ of __ in/out of the ___ ___ via what?
- Acts on distal tubule
- causing an INCREASE of Na+ uptake.
- Causes reabsorption of Na+ OUT of the collecting duct
- via insertion of Na+ and K+ channels and Na+/K+ ATPases in cells that line the collecting duct
What is the net effect of Aldosterone?
- Where is Aldosterone produced?
INCREASES:
- water retention
- BP
Comes from the ADRENAL CORTEX
___ makes the collecting duct permeable to ___?If theres none of it, what’s the result?
- ADH makes the collecting duct permeable to water.
- No ADH= collecting duct impermeable to water
- Since the collecting duct passes through the highly concentrated ___,
- as soon as membrane becomes permeable to water (due to what hormone?)
what happens?
- CD passes through highly []ed MEDULLA
as soon as ADH reaches CD:
- theres a large flow of water OUT of the filtrate
- results in CONCENTRATING of the urine (increased water retention)
Net effect of ADH=? 2 things
water retention and increase BP
Primary function of the Respiratory system is? where does this occur and how does air get there?
- GAS EXCHANGE!
- occurs in Alveoli
- inhalation & exhalation deliver air to alveoli
O2 diffues ___ its [] gradient into what?
DOWN its [] gradient into the blood
CO2 diffuses ___ its [] gradient ___ of what and into what?
DOWN its [] gradient, OUT of blood and back into lungs
Respiratory system: Path of air
- Mouth
- Nose
- pharynx
- larynx
- trachea
- bronchi
- bronchiloes
- alveoli
Diaphragm: remember 2 things
- it moves DOWN when it is flexed and UP when relaxed
- it moves DOWN during inhalation and UP during exhalation
Hemoglobin (Hb) is made up of what? What makes up that thing?
- made of 4 protein chains
- (2 alpha & 2 ß subunits)
- each alpha and ß protein has a Fe-containing “heme” group at its center
- Each heme can hold ONE O2 molecul
- THUS, 100% saturation of Hb molecule can hold 8 oxygen atoms
100% saturated Hb can hold (#) ___ molecules
8 oxygen molecules
Equation for how CO2 is carried in the blood:
CO2+H2O⇒HCO3- + H+
The function of the cardiovascular system is…? (2)
- Deliver O2 & nutrients to the cells & tissues
- pick up CO2 & waste products and deliver them to lungs & kidneys
Tricuspid valve leads to? Bicuspid valve leads to? (Travel Bolivia!)
- Tricuspid leads to Right Ventricle (Pulmonary Valve)
- Bicuspid leads to Left Ventricle (Aortic Valve)
Cardiovascular System: Systemic Circulation (hint: there’s a path!)
- blood flows from LEFT ventricle,
- through arteries,
- arterioles,
- capillaries,
- venules,
- veins,
- vena cava, and
- back to RIGHT atrium
Arteries vs Veins: Which one leaves, which returns to the heart?
- Arteries leave (away from heart)
- veins return (towards heart)
Sympathetic nervous activity ___es HR & BP
increases
Parasympathetic nervous activity ___es HR & BP
decreases
Blood Vessels: Pathway
- Arteries
- Arterioles
- Capillaries
- Venules
- Veins
Define arteries
- muscular, THICK-walled vessels that PUSH blood via rhythmic contraction
define veins
- THIN walled vessels with little to no musculature that rely on a VALVE system to move blood back to heart
On arterial side of capillary bed, HYDROSTATIC (“water”+non+moving”) PRESSURE is at its (max/min?)
- At the same time, ___ of blood is _______ than than of interstitial fluid, creating what?
at its MAX!
-
osmolarity of blood is GREATER than that of interstitial fluid
- creates an osmotic pressure
that DRIVES FLUID INTO THE CAPILLARY
Blood is what kind of tissue?
connective
What is the function of blood?
- -transport nutrients, gases, waste products & hormones to and from cells
- regulate the extracellular environment
- protect body from foreign bodies (ie antigens)
What is blood made of? 6 things
- WBC’s (“leukocytes”)
- RBS’s (“erythrocytes”)
- antibodies (“immunoglobulins”)
- clotting factors (like fibrinogen)
- transport proteins (like albumin)
- platelets
Blood vessels: Q=AV explains inverse relationship b/t what?
velocity and cross-sectional area
Erythrocytes=?
-sacks of Hemoglobin, and not much else
What’s an interesting fact about erythrocytes (RBCs)?
They start out with a nucleus & organelles, but the disappear as cell matures
Leukocytes: (2)
- No hemoglobin
- Normal cells with ALL their organelles involved in the immune system
- Granulocytes are __,__, and__.
- These cells live for…?
- “Grandma NEB Doesnt live long”
- neutrophils
- eosinophils
- basophils
- these cells live for hours to days
- Agranulocytes (2 examples)
- how long do these cells last for?
- -monocytes (which become macrophages)
- lymphocytes
- live for months to years
- Define platelets.
- When are they sticky and not sticky?
- Membrane bound drops of cytoplasm
- are sticky when exposed to injured epithelium
- are NOT sticky when exposed to healthy epithelium
What happens when platelets encounter injured epithelium?
- They release chemicals that activate OTHER platelets & clotting factors
What are platelets derived from?
Megakaryocytes in the bone marrow
All blood cells develop from ___ ___ (aka “undifferentiated cells”) in the bone marrow–a process called ___.
- stem cells
- hematopoesis
Four phenotypes of bloodwhat is universal acceptor? Universal donor?
- A,B, AB, O
- universal acceptor=AB
- universal donor=O
Genetically, blood type is an example of what?
- co-dominance
- (both alleles expressed equally in heterozygote)
For blood types, “A” and “B” indicate what?
- ANTIGENS that are present on that person’s blood cell membranes
- A=A only
- B=B only
- AB=Both A and B
- O=NEITHER A nor B
What is the function of the lymphatic system? (3)
- -gather excess interstitial fluid & return it to the blood
- remove from interstitial fluid proteins & other molecules TOO BIG to be taken up by capillaries
- monitor blood & lymph for infections
Lymph nodes are filled with ___, which do what?
- filled with lymphocytes
- which monitor the blood for foreign antigens & fight infections
What do Lymph vessels look like? How do they work to move things around?
- have one-way VALVES used to move the lymph
- Single cells overlap slightly,
- creating a trap door that lets things IN, but not OUT
The ENTIRE lymph system drains into what 2 main vessels?
- What do both of these vessels do?
- RIGHT LYMPHATIC
- THORACIC DUCT
- Both dump back into BLOOD STREAM
- by merging w/ large veins in lower portion of the neck area
What 5 things comprise the “NERVOUS SYSTEM?”
- Brain (CNS)
- Spinal cord (CNS)
- PERIPHERAL nerves (aka “PNS”)
- Nerve SUPPORT cells
- astrocytes
- schwann cells
- ependymal cells
-
SENSORY organs
- eyes
- ears
What is a “neuron?”
a specialized cell that can carry an electrochemical signal (called an “action potential”)
Dendrites are…
- finger-like projections from the cell body
- receive signal information from an upstream neuron, with which it forms a SYNAPSE
How do dendrites receive signal information from upstream neurons?
- Signal binds to a neurotransmitter on the post-synaptic membrane (aka the dendrite portion of the membrane)
Nervous system:
- describe the neuron cell
- aka the “STOMA”*
is the main part of the neuron where the nucleus is located
Neuron:
- describe the AXON HILLOCK
- what does it have a high [] of?
- What effect does this have on the region?
- Area where the axon joins the cell body
- has a very high [] of VGNa+ channels, which make it:
- 1) sensitive to action potentials
- 2) capable of regenerating a strong AP for transmission down the axon
Neuron:
- Describe the TERMINAL BUTTON
- aka the AXON TERMINAL
is a branch at the end of the axon that synapses with:
- the dendrite of the next neuron down the line, OR
- the effector
Neuron:describe the axon
is the long, narrow, tube-like stretch b/t the cell body and the terminal button
Neuron:
- Describe Schwann cells
- What do they have high levels of?
- What do they wrap themselves around?
- What’s it called once it’s done wrapping?
- are along the axon*
- are specialized neural SUPPORT cells.*
- have high levels of FAT
- wrap themselves around the axon multiple times
- wrapping creates a “myelin sheath,” which insulates the axon
Neuron:what are the nodes of ranvier?what significance do they have?
- small gaps b/t schwann cells
- signals are able to “jump” from one node to another, without progressing along the entire length of the axon
- this dramatically increases transmission SPEED!
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
- What is an ACTION POTENTIAL?
- What happens (in general) once it is made?
a dramatic ∆ in resting elec. potential across membrane of a nerve cell
- once made, it will move along cell membrane to neighboring portions of the neurons
- as it does, the areas where AP originated gradually return to resting potential (-70mV)
Creation & Propagation of an AP: Define & quantify “resting potential”
- is the voltage across the membrane when an AP is NOT present
- resting potential= -70mV
Creation & Propagation of an AP: What does a Na+/K+ pump do?
(is an ATP pump) that actively transports 3 Na+ ions OUT of the cell & 2 K+ ions IN
What is the net effect of the Na+ /K+ pump during propagation of an AP?
since there’s more Na+ sent OUT of the cell than K+ ions brought in, there is a more (+) charge outside of the cell, and a progressively more (-) charge inside
Creation & Propagation of an AP: describe voltage-gated Na+ channelswhat happens when its open?
- integral proteins that OPEN UP in response to a ∆ in resting potential across the membrane
- when open, Na+ flows rapidly back INTO the cell
Creation & Propagation of an AP: describe depolarization. what causes it?
- opening of VGNa+ channels causes a sudden spike in membrane potential
- usually from -70mV to ~+40mV
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
- Define THRESHOLD POTENTIAL
- Value= __mV
- What happens if this value is exceeded?
- What about if that value isn’t quite reached?
- is the MINIMUM STIMULUS NEEDED*
- to INITIATE an AP*
- usually +55mV
If stimulus EXCEEDS 55mV:
- AP follows.
If stimulus FAILS TO REACH +55mV:
- mem pot. returns to -70mV (Resting potential)
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
- What are VG K+ channels?
- What’s a key difference b/t these and VGNa+** channels?
- What happens as a result of this difference?
- integral proteins that respond to*
- a ∆ in membrane potential*
Differ from VGNa+ channels because:
- have a MUCH higher threshold for responding than do VGNa+ channels
- b/c this is the case, VGK+ channels will only react following a VERY LARGE ∆ in membrane potential that is a result of depolarization
This is what causes dip to ~90mV when repolarizing, because VGK+ channels are SLOWER to respond
At around MAX depolarization of an AP, what happens with regards to ion channels?
- Na+ channels begin to close
- K+ channels begin to open
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
- Describe Repolarization
- What happens as a result of it?
- Quantify“repolarization”
- Because there’s more K+ ions inside the cell (due to Na+ K+ pump), opening of K+ channels cause K+ ions to flow OUT of the cell
- this causes sudden DECREASE in membrane potential, from +40mV to -70mV*
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
- Describe Hyperpolarization
- Quantify this stage
- because K+ channels are SLOW TO CLOSE as membrane potential approaches -70mV:
- membrane potential actually dips to -90mV before going back up to -70mV*
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
- Describe the ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD
- When does it occur?
- Why does it occur at this time?
NO action potential can be created,
no MATTER how much stimulus!
- Occurs during progression of AP
- which involves depolarization of membrane
- 2nd stimulus can’t be initiated until membrane gets repolarized
(no sexy time right after blowing your load–no matter HOW much the “stimulus”)
Creation & Propagation of an AP:
- Describe RELATIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD
- what’s the NAME of the state the membrane is in DURING the Relative Refractory Period?
- Why does the RRP need the thing that it needs?
here, another AP CAN be stimulated–
but stimulus needs to be SUPER HIGH!
State of membrane during this period:
- time frame when membrane is hyperpolarized
Needs a larger stimulus
b/c its a greater jump from -90 ⇒+55
than from -70 ⇒ +55
(30 minutes after sexy time, you COULD have sex again, if the “stimulus” were sufficient)
What are the 2 types of synapse?
electrical and chemical
What is, by FAR, the slowest part of signal transduction?
Transmission across the synapse
Describe “ELECTRICAL Synapses”
Where are the only 5 places they happen?
are GAP JUNCTIONS b/t cells that
allow electrical signals to pass very quickly
from cell to cell
- only happen in:
- retina
- smooth muscle
- cardiac muscle
- Brain (CNS)
- Spinal Cord (CNS)
What’s the “traditional” kind of synapse that we all think about?
Chemical synapses
Describe chemical synapses
- are the small gaps b/t the terminal button and:
- dendrite of a subsequent neuron
- membrane or a muscle or other target (the “effector”)
- Describe (in general) how a signal is transmitted from:
- the terminal button
- across the synaptic cleft, and
- to the next neuron in line (or to the effector , whichever)
AP arrives at post-synaptic cleft,
- triggers voltage gated Ca2+ channels to OPEN
- calcium flows into the terminal button*
presence of Ca2+ initiates a cascade!
neurotransmitter bundles FUSE with presynaptic membrane
- then dump their contents into the synaptic cleft
- these neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the gap, and
-
BIND to protein receptors on post-synaptic membrane
- binding of protein and neurotransmitter molecules opens Na+ channels
Na+ flows INTO cell
- if enough Na+ gets in, voltage will reach threshold
- and AP will be generated!
Synapses:How do you stop signal transduction?
specialized enzymes in synaptic cleft must BREAK DOWN the neurotransmitter to interrupt its action
- the POST-synaptic membrane will be CONTINUOUSLY STIMULATED as long as…..?
as long as:
neurotransmitter is present
What is the most common enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholinesterase (ACh)
- what is an acetylcholinesterase (ACh) “agonist”? How about an “antagonist?”
- What do each do wrt stimulation of neurons?
Agonist=ACTIVATES ACh
- leads to break down of neurotransmitters
- decreased stimulation of neurons
Antagonist= INHIBITS ACh
- increased stimulation of neurons
- “an AGonist AGtivates”*
What do Neural SUPPORT CELLS do?
- Are they neurons?
- give 3 examples
they are an example of ___ tissue!
- they ARENT neurons*
- but rather cells in the nervous system that provide SUPPORT to neurons*
- Ex:
-
Schwann cells
- (oligodendrocytes, aka “GLIAL CELLS” in CNS)
-
Ependymal cells
- (cells lining the cerebrospinal fluid cavities),
-
Astrocytes
- (Structural support cell
-
Schwann cells
are an example of NERVOUS tissue!
Name the 3 neuron functions
HINT: _____ neurons, _____ neurons, & _____ neurons
- INTERneurons,
- Motor (efferent) neurons,
- Sensory (afferent) neurons
“S.A.M.E”
Describe SENSORY (AFFERENT) neurons
- What are they activated by?
- Sensory neurons send ______s to other elements of the _____ _____,
- Ultimately conveying SENSORY INFORMATION to the _____ or the _____ _____
- are nerve cells that transmit sensory information (sight, sound, feeling, etc.)
- They are activated by sensory input
- send projections to other elements of the nervous system
- ultimately conveying sensory information to the brain or spinal cord.
describe motor (efferent) neurons
carry signals to a muscle or gland, in response to a stimulus
describe interneurons (2 functions and example/s)
- CONNECT motor (efferent) and sensory (afferent) neurons
- transfer and process signals
- EX: the brain and 90% of all other neurons are interneurons
The Nervous System is divided into what 2 categories?
Central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS)
The CNS includes?
- brain
- spinal chord
INTERNEURONS ONLY!!!!!
The PNS is divided into what 2 subcategories?
somatic & autonomic
PNS: Somatic nervous system -describe (3)
- is voluntary
- innervates skeletal muscle
- has sensory & motor subdivisions
PNS: Autonomic nervous system-describe
- INvoluntary
- innervates:
- cardiac muscle
- smooth muscle
- glands
- Like somatic, it has sensory & motor subdivisions
Parasympathetic NS:-describe-Where are cells located? -What neurotransmitters does it use, and where?
- “Rest & digest”
- cell bodies located very close (or inside!) effector
- Neurotransmitters:
- ACh ONLY
- at ganglia & effector
- ACh ONLY
Sympathetic NS-describe-where are the cells located? -What kind of neurotransmitters does it use, and where?
- “Fight or flight”
- Cell bodies located FAR from effectors
- Neurotransmitters:
- uses Norepinephrine mostly (ACh too)
- at ganglia & effector
- uses Norepinephrine mostly (ACh too)
What does the Endocrine System include?
“endocrine glands,” and the fluids & ducts into which they are released
EXOcrine glands release what? into where?
- release enzymes or other liquids into external environment
- Ex:
- like digestive tract, nostrils, & butt-holes
ENDOcrine glands release what? into what?
release hormones into the internal fluids of the body (blood or lymph)
Name the 3 kinds of Endocrine hormones
- peptides
- steroids
- tyrosines
Mnemonic for anterior pituitary hormones: FLAT PG (flat pig)
- FSH
- LH
- ACTH
- TSH
- Prolactin
- GH
Which hormones come from:Posterior pituitary
- ADH
- Oxytocin
Which hormone(s) come from:Parathyroid
PTH (parathyroid hormone)
Which hormone(s) come from:Pancreas
- Glucagon
- Insulin
Which PEPTIDE hormone(s) come from:Thyroid
Calcitonin
Which hormone(s) come from:Embryo/Placenta
hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)
Which hormone(s) come from:Adrenal cortex
- cortisol
- aldosterone
Which hormone(s) come from:Gonads
- estrogen
- progesterone
- testosterone
Which TYROSINE hormone(s) come from:Thyroid
both of which are?
- T3
- T4
both are lipid-soluble
Which hormone(s) come from:adrenal medullaboth of which are?
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine
both are water soluble
Describe what happens when a hormone is transported to an effector
- lipid-soluble hormones
- require a protein carrier or a micelle/vesicle
- peptides are water soluble
- …so they dissolve in bloodstream
Describe what happens when a hormone gets to its target effector(lipid-soluble vs water soluble)
- lipid soluble act exclusively by binding on a receptor IN THE NUCLEUS & affecting transcription
- peptide hormones act on a number of different cell locations
- can’t go straight to nucleus
- Describe membrane permeability for:
- lipid-soluble
- water-soluble hormones
once they get to their target effector
- lipid soluble
- doesnt require a cell membrane receptor–
- goes right thru the cell membrane
- They DO still require a receptor when they act INSIDE the cell
- doesnt require a cell membrane receptor–
- Peptide hormones are hydrophilic
- …so they need a cell membrane receptor
Briefly describe what happens in a 2nd messenger system. Usually occurs via…?
- usually occurs via a cascade.
- one hormone activates another hormone, enzyme, or other signaling molecule
- process repeats, with SIZE of rxn and # of molecules increasing with each step
Hormones always act…?
..to return to homeostatic, or “normal” conditions
Why is the thyroid a “special gland?”
because it secretes both a tyrosine derivative AND a peptide hormone
Anterior & posterior pituitary glands are both REGULATED by hormones that come from where?
Hypothalamus
Remember…all steroids are ___ derivatives
CHO(cholesterol)
ACTH
stimulates adrenal cortex to release stress hormones called “glucocorticoids”
LH
- surge in LH causes:
- ovulation
- stimulates secretion of sex hormones:
- estrogen
- testosterone
FSH
- stimulates :
- growth of follicle during menstrual cycle
- production of sperm
TSH
stimulates release of T3/T4 from thyroid
hGH
stimulates growth throughout body
Prolactin
stimulates milk production in breasts
ADH
- causes collecting duct of kidney to become highly permeable to water
- leads to concentrating of the urine
Oxytocin
- stimulates:
- contractions during childbirth
- milk secretion during nursing
Parathyroid hormone
- increases blood calcium by:
- stimulating proliferation of osteoclasts
- uptake of Ca2+ in gut
- reabsorption of Ca2+ in kidneys
Insulin
- stimulates uptake and storage of glucose from blood
Glucagon
- stimulates:
- gluconeogenesis
- release of glucose into the blood
Calcitonin
decreases blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts
hCG
prevents degeneration of corpeus luteum, maintaining pregnancy
Aldosterone
- increases Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion at distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
- leads to net increase of salts in plasma
- increasing osmotic potential
- And, subsequently increases blood pressure
Cortisol
- stress hormone
- increases gluconeogenesis in liver
- and thus increases blood glucose levels
- stimulates fat breakdown
Testosterone
- stimulates:
- development of secondary sex characteristics
- closing of epiphyseal plates
Estrogen
- stimulates:
- female sex organs
- causes:
- LH surge in menstruation
Progesterone
stimulates growth and maintenance of uterus during pregnancy
T3/T4
increases basal metabolic rate, effecting metabolism
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
causes response almost identical to sympathetic nervous system response
4 special things to remember about neurons:
- They are stuck in G0 phase (cant divide)
- Depend ENTIRELY on glucose for energy
- DONT require insulin for glucose uptake
- Have very low glycogen stores & NO oxygen storage capacity
- thus, neurons require high blood flow!
Immune system (ie T- cells) of blood for a blood recipient will attack…?
- any antigen that is “foreign” to it
- If person is type B, their T cells will attack AB because A is foreign
What do stess hormones, like _____s, do?
- like glucocorticoids (which ACTH stimulates)
- increase glugoneogenesis and fat metabolism
diastolic pressure
- occurs near the beginning of the cardiac cycle.
- It is the minimum pressure in the arteries when the pumping chambers of the heart — ventricles — fill with blood.
systolic pressure
- Near the end of the cardiac cycle
- systolic pressure, or peak pressure, occurs when the ventricles contract.
What does Gram negative bacteria look like? What physical proterties does it have?
- Stains pink
- has a relatively thin cell wall
- does not form endosomes
- contain 2 cell membranes
- one outside the cell
- one inside the cell
What does gram positive bacteria look like? What physical proterties does it have?
- stains purple
- very thick cell wall
- DOES form endosomes
- has a single cell membrane
What is the main function of the PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)?
- What does it relay communication between?
- The main function of the PNS is TO CONNECT:
- the central nervous system (CNS)
- to the limbs and organs
…essentially serving as a communication relay going back and forth between the brain and the extremities
oligodendrocytes, aka?
What part of the NS are they found in?
aka GLIAL CELLS
Found in the CNS
Both ENDOCRINE AND NERVOUS responses pair with efferent/afferent sensory information?
Which is a faster response: Endocrine or Nervous?
Both endocrine and nervous responses pair with AFFERENT sensory information
NERVOUS reponses are faster
than endocrine responses
NEURONS DO NOT require _____ to take up _____ as do nearly all other cells
Neurons DO NOT require INSULIN to take up GLUCOSE
as do nearly all other cells
The SYMPATHETIC nervous system ______s the pupil and the PARASYMPATHETIC _______s it
SYMPATHETIC
- dilates the pupil
PARASYMPATHETIC
- constricts it
