Psychology 1 Flashcards
- Visually compare:
- sensory
- working
- short & long term
- procedural
- episodic, &
- semantic memory
What does the Herman Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve look like?
- Graph cumulative # of responses vs. Time for The 4 Reinforcement Schedules:
- Fixed ratio (FR)
- Fixed-interval (FI)
- Variable- ratio (VR)
- Variable-interval (VI)
Compare Stimulus (+ and -) with Behavior (+ and -)
graphically
- Where on the brain is the:
- pons
- cerebral cortex
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
- medulla oblongata
- brain stem
- midbrain
- pituitary gland
- Where in the brain is the:
- hypothalamic nuclei
- amygdala
- hippocampus
- cingulate gyrus
- corpus callosum
- thalamus
- Where in the brain is the:
- frontal lobe
- temporal lobe
- parietal lobe
- occipital lobe
- brainstem
(Visual cortex)
- Where in the brain is the:
- frontal lobe
- somatomotor cortex
- somatosensory cortex
- parietal lobe
- occipital lobe
- cerebellum
- spinal cord
- medulla oblongata
- temporal lobe
- Draw the diagram connecting signal detection theory and response bias
- Know how they are interrelated
- Label the following in the eye:
- cornea
- sclera
- pupil
- iris
- aqueous humor
- vitreous humor
- lens
- ciliary muscles
- retina
- optic nerve
- What happens with regular eye sight, near sightedness (myopia), and far sightedness (hyperopia) with regards to:
- where the image comes into focus, and
- location of the retina?
- Normally:
- image focuses directly ON the retina
- NS: elongation of eye (or other causes) make the image come into focus too soon
- This was your problem…also this is why squinting, you were able to see images better. compresses eye, brings image more into focus
- FR: shorter eye, image comes into focus too late
- Draw a diagram of the layers of the retina.
- Indicate the location of the following cells:
- a) rods
- b) cones
- d) bipolar cells
- e) horizontal cells
- f) amacrine cells
- g) ganglion cells
- h) optic nerve fibers
- Indicate the direction of signal flow through these cells.
- What is the purpose of these multiple layers of cells?
- Indicate the location of the following cells:
- Draw a diagram of the eyes, the optic nerve and the brain
- Demonstrate how it is possible that the left hemisphere of the brain receives all of the visual input for the left half of the visual field of BOTH eyes
Draw and label all of the parts of the inner ear and describe their function.
The Ear
- Draw a cross-section of the COCHLEA
- Show:
- the three COMPARTMENTS
- the organ of Corti
- Show:
When you see “memory,” think:
storage & retrieval of information
When you see “learning,” think:
a relatively long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience
Define “encoding”
- the initial process of memory creation, including:
- sensation
- transient storage of the information in working memory
Automatic vs controlled processing
- automatic requires no attention or conscious effort
- controlled does
- If controlled is repeated over a long period of time, it can become automatic processing
Define maintenance rehearsal
the rote, repetitive rehearsal of new info w/o thinking about its meaning or context
Maintenance rehearsal can only maintain information in…?
- the working memory, or at MOST create a weak, short-lived long term memory
- it is BAD
Define Elaborative (or “___” ) rehearsal
- or “semantic” rehearsal
- the rehearsal of new information by THINKING about its meaning, purpose, and relationship to previously-known concepts
- its good!!
Name & describe the 3 types of encoding
- Visual
- encoding of an image or visualization
- Acoustic
- encoding or a sound
- Semantic
- encoding or meaning, understanding, or a concept’s interrelation with other stored information
- THE BEST METHOD
Processes that aide in encoding memories (4)
- Mnemonics
- Chunking
- Peg-word system
- Loci method
State-dependent learning
- if a memory is encoded in a particular PLACE or setting, or in conjunction with a sight or sound, recall is enhanced when attempted in a matching state
The testing effect
- testing (forced active recall) during the learning phase dramatically increases retention
The expensive memory principle
easy learning processes produce memories that are EASILY forgotten (and vice-versa)
shallow processing, aka
structural or phonemic processing
Structural processing is encoding what?
what things look like
Phonemic processing is encoding what?
- what things sound like
- like repeating a term in one’s head
- Both structural and phonemic processing involve only what?
- What do they produce?
- Only involve maintenance rehearsal
- Produce weak, short-lived memories
Deep, aka “___” processing involves what?
- aka “semantic”
- Involves:
- Encoding the MEANING of a concept, the CONTEXT surrounding a concept,
- or making relational connections to other previously encoded memories
- Semantic processing involves what with regards to “learning”?
- What does it produce?
- “elaborative” rehearsal
- produces strong, long-term memories
Self-reference effect
- the brain encodes info more easily (and forms stronger memories) when info being encoded is more closely related to oneself
What is a mnemonic?
- Refers to any pattern of letters, symbols, or associations
- that help one remember something
Peg-word system
- Words represent numbers–this forms the “peg” then, to rapidly memorize a list of objects you associate each object with its appropriate peg
- ex: associate the number 1 with “gun” or a candle (looks like the #1)
Loci method
- associate words to be remembered with:
-
visual checkpoints
- objects within a room, along a path somewhere, etc.
-
visual checkpoints
Define “chunking”
- lumping of information together helps you remember
- ex: remembering 295-274-9274 is easier than remembering 2952749274
Name the 7 types of memory
- sensory
- working
- short-term
- long-term(LTM)
- procedural
- episodic
- semantic
- For long-term memory, differentiate b/t explicit and implicit memory
-
Explicit (aka “Declarative”)
- requires conscious, intentional recall
-
Implicit (aka “Procedural”)
- automatic, unconscious recall
- usually of skills, procedures, or conditioned responses
- automatic, unconscious recall
What does a “semantic network” describe?
its a theory for explaining how our LTM stores concepts and the relationships among them.
What 5 things does the theory of Semantic Networks propose?
- The LTM is a web-like network of concepts
- Each concept is called a “node”
- represented as circles or ovals
- Relationships b/t concepts are represented by connecting lines or arrows
- Length of arrow is inversely proportional to strength of assn b/t concepts
- Each node can be (and usually is) connected to multiple related nodes
- 2 types of links: Superordinate and Modifier
- Superordinate links connect the concept to a CATEGORY name
- indicating the concept is a member of that larger class
- cat–>mammal
-
Modifier links connect a concept to its properties
- cat–> whiskers
In Semantic Networks, what are the 2 types of links b/t nodes?
Superordinate and modifier
- Superordinate links
- connect the concept to a CATEGORY name
- indicating the concept is a member of that larger class
- cat–>mammal
- Modifier links
- connect a concept to its properties
- cat–> whiskers
- connect a concept to its properties
- How do Semantic Networks process recall events?
- Describe it
- via “spreading activation”
- when working memory focuses attention on a node (A), any nodes directly connected to that node (B, C, D, whatever) are connected FIRST
- Next, any nodes connected to THOSE nodes (B,C,D) are activated, and so on
- This is called the “spreading” effect
In Semantic Networks, speed of connection of nodes is…?
- NOT equivalent!
- stronger semantic connections (that are tied to you more closely) fire more rapidly and are more easily recalled
- Frequently used connections also fire more rapidly
Retrieval is…
any use or application of a stored memory
What are the 3 forms of retrieval?
- Recall
- Recognition
- Relearning
Define recall, recognition, & relearning
- Recall
- retrieval and active statement or correct application of a memory
- Recognition
- associating information with an existing memory
- Relearning
- increased learning efficacy when reinforcing an existing memory
Priming effect
- Presenting a related word FIRST increases recall or verification rate
- doctor before nurse speeds up recognition
- doctor=primer
- nurse=target
- doctor before nurse speeds up recognition
Typicality effect
- Using an example of a concept increases recall or verification rate
- “a robin is a bird” verified more quickly than “a penguin is a bird”
Familiarity effect
-
increasing level of familiarity with the example increases recall or verification rate
- “a dog is a mammal” verified more readily than “an aardvark is a mammal”
True-false effect
true statements are verified more quickly than false statements are negated
Category size effect
- recall & verification rate increase if category has few members
- …and decrease if category has many members
- “a poodle is a dog” is verified faster than “a poodle is a mammal”
Serial-position effect
- Presentation order (or positioning in a list) impacts recall
- PRIMACY effect
- Predicts that concepts listed FIRST will be remembered at a higher rate
- RECENCY effect
- predicts that concepts listed LAST will be remembered at a higher rate
- PRIMACY effect
interference effects
- a new memory that is very similar to an existing one can cause interference, or increased difficulty recalling the original memory
- memorizing a 2nd phone number makes remembering other harder
Proactive interference
-
when <em><strong>old memories interfere</strong></em> with formation of <strong>new</strong> ones
- you keep forgetting your new # because you keep remembering your old #
retroactive interference
- when new memories interfere with old ones
- forgot your old # because you memorized your new #
“Automatic spreading activation” occurs when the primer is a ____, and the target is a/n ______
- is said to occur when the primer is a category NAME
- …and the target is an example WITHIN that category
- Role of emotion in memory
- heightened emotional states
memories coded during heightened emotional states are usually remembered more easily
Role of emotion in memory: emotional interference
heightened emotions wrt one memory can simultaneously increase strength of LTM trace for that concept, and DECREASE strength of other memories occurring immediately before or during emotional event
- Role of emotion in memory
- positive vs negative recall
- positive memories usually remembered more easily
- negative ones forgotten more easily
Individuals suffering from depression often remember what 2 just equally?
positive AND negative memories more easily
Older adults tend to show a stronger recall bias for (positive/negative?) memories
positive
- Role of emotion in memory
- State-dependent learning
-
Similarity in states in which a memory is encoded and retrieved enhances recall
- This includes mood or emotions present during encoding
Max brain size occurs in one’s ___’s and decreases with age thereafter
20’s
What 2 types of memory decline the MOST/ most noticeably with age?
- Episodic memory
- “What did I do last friday? Where was I when the Trade Towers collapsed?”
- Source memory
- “Where did I read about this concept? Who told me about the Trade Towers collapsing?”
What memory type goes through LITTLE TO NO decline with age?
Semantic memory
- Describe Alzheimer’s Disease
- is a ___ disease characterized by ___(3)?
- At what age does onset usually occur?
- What are some late-stage symptoms?
- Neurodegenerative disease characterized by
- memory loss
- impaired cognition
- language deterioration
- usually occurs ~65 or greater
- late-stage symptoms are more severe and include:
- loss of judgement
- confusion
- drastic mood and personality changes
- Physiological changes (aka biological “markers”) of Alzheimer’s Disease
- What happens outside the cell and what happens inside the cell?
OUTSIDE:
- In b/t CNS and neurons (OUTSIDE the cell), ß amyloids and portions of Amyloid Precursor Protein (“APP”) are normally snipped off and recycled in healthy individuals
- …but in Alzheimer’s patients they aggregate into ß amyloid plaques
INSIDE:
- The Tau protein (a struc protein associated with microtubules) undergoes hyperphosphorylation
- this causes the modified Tau proteins to aggregate into insoluble neurofibrillary tangles
- This causes the size of the actual brain itself to DECREASE!
- Size of the ventricles increase, while size of the hippocampus decreases
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
- A brain disorder resulting from severe Thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency
- Usually from chronic alcohol abuse
In Korsakoff’s syndrome, what happens to hurt Thiamine production?
- Alcohol inhibits conversion of thiamine to its active form, Thiamine Pyrophosphate (TPP)
- Alcoholics:
- vomit frequently
- have inflammed GI linings
- usually have worse eating habits
- All of these contribute to vitamin B deficiency
- ___ ___ precedes Korsakoff’s Syndrome
- What is it?
- Wernicke’s Encephalopathy
- Its a mild version of Korsakoff’s Syndrome
- How is Wernicke’s Encephalopathy treated?
- by intravenous vitamin injections
- by NOT DRINKING ANYMORE!!
- Define “Amnesia”
- What 3 things can cause it?
- the loss of memory as a result of:
- brain damage
- injury
- psychological trauma
- What makes amnesia different from forgetting?
-
Forgetting
- is a result of NORMAL loss of recall
- as a result of a fading memory trace
- is a result of NORMAL loss of recall
-
Amnesia
- is loss of memory due to:
- brain damage
- injury, or
- psychological trauma
- is loss of memory due to:
-
Anterograde amnesia
- Define
- How does it affect LTMs?
=Inability to create new memories
- occurring AFTER the event that caused amnesia
- LTMs from before event remain intact
-
Retrograde amnesia
- Define
- Memories created PRIOR to event cannot be remembered
- but new memories CAN be created
- Dementia
- Define
- a gradual, long-term decline in one’s general mental function or capability
- Is severe enough to interfere with one’s daily life
Describe:
-
“Prospective memory”
- Give some examples or POOR Prospective Memory
- the ability to remember to do something at some FUTURE TIME
- ex: patient forgets to take their medication (poor Prospective Memory), forgetting to return a library book, etc.