Psychology 1

Question 1

• Visually compare:
  
  • sensory
  • working
  • short & long term
  • procedural
  • episodic, &
  • semantic memory

Answer 1

Question 2

What does the Herman Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve look like?

Answer 2

Question 3

• Graph cumulative # of responses vs. Time for The 4 Reinforcement Schedules:
  
  • Fixed ratio (FR)
  • Fixed-interval (FI)
  • Variable- ratio (VR)
  • Variable-interval (VI)

Answer 3

Question 4

Compare Stimulus (+ and -) with Behavior (+ and -)

graphically

Answer 4

Question 5

• Where on the brain is the:
  
  • pons
  • cerebral cortex
  • thalamus
  • hypothalamus
  • medulla oblongata
  • brain stem
  • midbrain
  • pituitary gland

Answer 5

Question 6

• Where in the brain is the:
  
  • hypothalamic nuclei
  • amygdala
  • hippocampus
  • cingulate gyrus
  • corpus callosum
  • thalamus

Answer 6

Question 7

• Where in the brain is the:
  
  • frontal lobe
  • temporal lobe
  • parietal lobe
  • occipital lobe
  • brainstem

(Visual cortex)

Answer 7

Question 8

• Where in the brain is the:
  
  • frontal lobe
  • somatomotor cortex
  • somatosensory cortex
  • parietal lobe
  • occipital lobe
  • cerebellum
  • spinal cord
  • medulla oblongata
  • temporal lobe

Answer 8

Question 9

• Draw the diagram connecting signal detection theory and response bias
  
  • Know how they are interrelated

Answer 9

Question 10

• Label the following in the eye:
  
  • cornea
  • sclera
  • pupil
  • iris
  • aqueous humor
  • vitreous humor
  • lens
  • ciliary muscles
  • retina
  • optic nerve

Answer 10

Question 11

• What happens with regular eye sight, near sightedness (myopia), and far sightedness (hyperopia) with regards to:
  
  • where the image comes into focus, and
  • location of the retina?

Answer 11

• Normally:
  
  • image focuses directly ON the retina
• NS: elongation of eye (or other causes) make the image come into focus too soon
  
  • This was your problem…also this is why squinting, you were able to see images better. compresses eye, brings image more into focus
• FR: shorter eye, image comes into focus too late

Question 12

• Draw a diagram of the layers of the retina.
  
  • Indicate the location of the following cells:
    
    • a) rods
    • b) cones
    • d) bipolar cells
    • e) horizontal cells
    • f) amacrine cells
    • g) ganglion cells
    • h) optic nerve fibers
  • Indicate the direction of signal flow through these cells.
  • What is the purpose of these multiple layers of cells?

Answer 12

Question 13

• Draw a diagram of the eyes, the optic nerve and the brain
  
  • Demonstrate how it is possible that the left hemisphere of the brain receives all of the visual input for the left half of the visual field of BOTH eyes

Answer 13

Question 14

Draw and label all of the parts of the inner ear and describe their function.

Answer 14

Question 15

The Ear

• Draw a cross-section of the COCHLEA
  
  • Show:
    
    • the three COMPARTMENTS
    • the organ of Corti

Answer 15

Question 16

When you see “memory,” think:

Answer 16

storage & retrieval of information

Question 17

When you see “learning,” think:

Answer 17

a relatively long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience

Question 18

Define “encoding”

Answer 18

• the initial process of memory creation, including:
  
  • sensation
  • transient storage of the information in working memory

Question 19

Automatic vs controlled processing

Answer 19

• automatic requires no attention or conscious effort
• controlled does
• If controlled is repeated over a long period of time, it can become automatic processing

Question 20

Define maintenance rehearsal

Answer 20

the rote, repetitive rehearsal of new info w/o thinking about its meaning or context

Question 21

Maintenance rehearsal can only maintain information in…?

Answer 21

• the working memory, or at MOST create a weak, short-lived long term memory
• it is BAD

Question 22

Define Elaborative (or “___” ) rehearsal

Answer 22

• or “semantic” rehearsal
• the rehearsal of new information by THINKING about its meaning, purpose, and relationship to previously-known concepts
  
  • its good!!

Question 23

Name & describe the 3 types of encoding

Answer 23

1. Visual
   
   • encoding of an image or visualization
2. Acoustic
   
   • encoding or a sound
3. Semantic
   
   • encoding or meaning, understanding, or a concept’s interrelation with other stored information
   • THE BEST METHOD

Question 24

Processes that aide in encoding memories (4)

Answer 24

1. Mnemonics
2. Chunking
3. Peg-word system
4. Loci method

Question 25

State-dependent learning

Answer 25

• if a memory is encoded in a particular PLACE or setting, or in conjunction with a sight or sound, recall is enhanced when attempted in a matching state

Question 26

The testing effect

Answer 26

• testing (forced active recall) during the learning phase dramatically increases retention

Question 27

The expensive memory principle

Answer 27

easy learning processes produce memories that are EASILY forgotten (and vice-versa)

Question 28

shallow processing, aka

Answer 28

structural or phonemic processing

Question 29

Structural processing is encoding what?

Answer 29

what things look like

Question 30

Phonemic processing is encoding what?

Answer 30

• what things sound like
  
  • like repeating a term in one’s head

Question 31

• Both structural and phonemic processing involve only what?
• What do they produce?

Answer 31

• Only involve maintenance rehearsal
• Produce weak, short-lived memories

Question 32

Deep, aka “___” processing involves what?

Answer 32

• aka “semantic”
• Involves:
  
  • Encoding the MEANING of a concept, the CONTEXT surrounding a concept,
  • or making relational connections to other previously encoded memories

Question 33

• Semantic processing involves what with regards to “learning”?
• What does it produce?

Answer 33

• “elaborative” rehearsal
• produces strong, long-term memories

Question 34

Self-reference effect

Answer 34

• the brain encodes info more easily (and forms stronger memories) when info being encoded is more closely related to oneself

Question 35

What is a mnemonic?

Answer 35

• Refers to any pattern of letters, symbols, or associations
  
  • that help one remember something

Question 36

Peg-word system

Answer 36

• Words represent numbers–this forms the “peg” then, to rapidly memorize a list of objects you associate each object with its appropriate peg
  
  • ex: associate the number 1 with “gun” or a candle (looks like the #1)

Question 37

Loci method

Answer 37

• associate words to be remembered with:
  
  • visual checkpoints
    
    • objects within a room, along a path somewhere, etc.

Question 38

Define “chunking”

Answer 38

• lumping of information together helps you remember
  
  • ex: remembering 295-274-9274 is easier than remembering 2952749274

Question 39

Name the 7 types of memory

Answer 39

1. sensory
2. working
3. short-term
4. long-term(LTM)
5. procedural
6. episodic
7. semantic

Question 40

• For long-term memory, differentiate b/t explicit and implicit memory

Answer 40

• Explicit (aka “Declarative”)
  
  • requires conscious, intentional recall
• Implicit (aka “Procedural”)
  
  • automatic, unconscious recall
    
    • usually of skills, procedures, or conditioned responses

Question 41

What does a “semantic network” describe?

Answer 41

its a theory for explaining how our LTM stores concepts and the relationships among them.

Question 42

What 5 things does the theory of Semantic Networks propose?

Answer 42

1. The LTM is a web-like network of concepts
2. Each concept is called a “node”
   
   • represented as circles or ovals
3. Relationships b/t concepts are represented by connecting lines or arrows
   
   • Length of arrow is inversely proportional to strength of assn b/t concepts
4. Each node can be (and usually is) connected to multiple related nodes
5. 2 types of links: Superordinate and Modifier
   
   • Superordinate links connect the concept to a CATEGORY name
   • indicating the concept is a member of that larger class
     
     • cat–>mammal
   • Modifier links connect a concept to its properties
     
     • cat–> whiskers

Question 43

In Semantic Networks, what are the 2 types of links b/t nodes?

Answer 43

Superordinate and modifier

1. Superordinate links
   
   • connect the concept to a CATEGORY name
   • indicating the concept is a member of that larger class
   • cat–>mammal
2. Modifier links
   
   • connect a concept to its properties
     
     • cat–> whiskers

Question 44

• How do Semantic Networks process recall events?
• Describe it

Answer 44

• via “spreading activation”
• when working memory focuses attention on a node (A), any nodes directly connected to that node (B, C, D, whatever) are connected FIRST
• Next, any nodes connected to THOSE nodes (B,C,D) are activated, and so on
  
  • This is called the “spreading” effect

Question 45

In Semantic Networks, speed of connection of nodes is…?

Answer 45

• NOT equivalent!
  
  • stronger semantic connections (that are tied to you more closely) fire more rapidly and are more easily recalled
  • Frequently used connections also fire more rapidly

Question 46

Retrieval is…

Answer 46

any use or application of a stored memory

Question 47

What are the 3 forms of retrieval?

Answer 47

1. Recall
2. Recognition
3. Relearning

Question 48

Define recall, recognition, & relearning

Answer 48

1. Recall
   
   • retrieval and active statement or correct application of a memory
2. Recognition
   
   • associating information with an existing memory
3. Relearning
   
   • increased learning efficacy when reinforcing an existing memory

Question 49

Priming effect

Answer 49

• Presenting a related word FIRST increases recall or verification rate
  
  • doctor before nurse speeds up recognition
    
    • doctor=primer
    • nurse=target

Question 50

Typicality effect

Answer 50

• Using an example of a concept increases recall or verification rate
  
  • “a robin is a bird” verified more quickly than “a penguin is a bird”

Question 51

Familiarity effect

Answer 51

• increasing level of familiarity with the example increases recall or verification rate
  
  • “a dog is a mammal” verified more readily than “an aardvark is a mammal”

Question 52

True-false effect

Answer 52

true statements are verified more quickly than false statements are negated

Question 53

Category size effect

Answer 53

• recall & verification rate increase if category has few members
• …and decrease if category has many members
  
  • “a poodle is a dog” is verified faster than “a poodle is a mammal”

Question 54

Serial-position effect

Answer 54

• Presentation order (or positioning in a list) impacts recall
  
  • PRIMACY effect
    
    • Predicts that concepts listed FIRST will be remembered at a higher rate
  • RECENCY effect
    
    • predicts that concepts listed LAST will be remembered at a higher rate

Question 55

interference effects

Answer 55

• a new memory that is very similar to an existing one can cause interference, or increased difficulty recalling the original memory
  
  • memorizing a 2^nd phone number makes remembering other harder

Question 56

Proactive interference

Answer 56

• _{when <em><strong>old memories interfere</strong></em> with formation of <strong>new</strong> ones}
  
  • _{you keep forgetting your new # because you keep remembering your old #}

Question 57

retroactive interference

Answer 57

• when new memories interfere with old ones
  
  • forgot your old # because you memorized your new #

Question 58

“Automatic spreading activation” occurs when the primer is a ____, and the target is a/n ______

Answer 58

• is said to occur when the primer is a category NAME
• …and the target is an example WITHIN that category

Question 59

• Role of emotion in memory
  
  • heightened emotional states

Answer 59

memories coded during heightened emotional states are usually remembered more easily

Question 60

Role of emotion in memory: emotional interference

Answer 60

heightened emotions wrt one memory can simultaneously increase strength of LTM trace for that concept, and DECREASE strength of other memories occurring immediately before or during emotional event

Question 61

• Role of emotion in memory
  
  • positive vs negative recall

Answer 61

• positive memories usually remembered more easily
• negative ones forgotten more easily

Question 62

Individuals suffering from depression often remember what 2 just equally?

Answer 62

positive AND negative memories more easily

Question 63

Older adults tend to show a stronger recall bias for (positive/negative?) memories

Answer 63

positive

Question 64

• Role of emotion in memory
  
  • State-dependent learning

Answer 64

• Similarity in states in which a memory is encoded and retrieved enhances recall
  
  • This includes mood or emotions present during encoding

Question 65

Max brain size occurs in one’s ___’s and decreases with age thereafter

Answer 65

20’s

Question 66

What 2 types of memory decline the MOST/ most noticeably with age?

Answer 66

1. Episodic memory
   
   • “What did I do last friday? Where was I when the Trade Towers collapsed?”
2. Source memory
   
   • “Where did I read about this concept? Who told me about the Trade Towers collapsing?”

Question 67

What memory type goes through LITTLE TO NO decline with age?

Answer 67

Semantic memory

Question 68

• Describe Alzheimer’s Disease
  
  • is a ___ disease characterized by ___(3)?
  • At what age does onset usually occur?
  • What are some late-stage symptoms?

Answer 68

• Neurodegenerative disease characterized by
  
  1. memory loss
  2. impaired cognition
  3. language deterioration
• usually occurs ~65 or greater
• late-stage symptoms are more severe and include:
  
  • loss of judgement
  • confusion
  • drastic mood and personality changes

Question 69

• Physiological changes (aka biological “markers”) of Alzheimer’s Disease
• What happens outside the cell and what happens inside the cell?

Answer 69

OUTSIDE:

• In b/t CNS and neurons (OUTSIDE the cell), ß amyloids and portions of Amyloid Precursor Protein (“APP”) are normally snipped off and recycled in healthy individuals
  
  • …but in Alzheimer’s patients they aggregate into ß amyloid plaques

INSIDE:

• The Tau protein (a struc protein associated with microtubules) undergoes hyperphosphorylation
  
  • this causes the modified Tau proteins to aggregate into insoluble neurofibrillary tangles
  • This causes the size of the actual brain itself to DECREASE!
  • Size of the ventricles increase, while size of the hippocampus decreases

Question 70

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

Answer 70

• A brain disorder resulting from severe Thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency
  
  • Usually from chronic alcohol abuse

Question 71

In Korsakoff’s syndrome, what happens to hurt Thiamine production?

Answer 71

• Alcohol inhibits conversion of thiamine to its active form, Thiamine Pyrophosphate (TPP)
• Alcoholics:
  
  • vomit frequently
  • have inflammed GI linings
  • usually have worse eating habits
• All of these contribute to vitamin B deficiency

Question 72

• ___ ___ precedes Korsakoff’s Syndrome
• What is it?

Answer 72

• Wernicke’s Encephalopathy
• Its a mild version of Korsakoff’s Syndrome

Question 73

• How is Wernicke’s Encephalopathy treated?

Answer 73

• by intravenous vitamin injections
• by NOT DRINKING ANYMORE!!

Question 74

• Define “Amnesia”
  
  • What 3 things can cause it?

Answer 74

• the loss of memory as a result of:
  
  1. brain damage
  2. injury
  3. psychological trauma

Question 75

• What makes amnesia different from forgetting?

Answer 75

• Forgetting
  
  • is a result of NORMAL loss of recall
    
    • as a result of a fading memory trace
• Amnesia
  
  • is loss of memory due to:
    
    • brain damage
    • injury, or
    • psychological trauma

Question 76

• Anterograde amnesia
  
  • Define
  • How does it affect LTMs?

Answer 76

=Inability to create new memories

• occurring AFTER the event that caused amnesia
• LTMs from before event remain intact

Question 77

• Retrograde amnesia
  
  • Define

Answer 77

• Memories created PRIOR to event cannot be remembered
  
  • but new memories CAN be created

Question 78

• Dementia
  
  • Define

Answer 78

• a gradual, long-term decline in one’s general mental function or capability
• Is severe enough to interfere with one’s daily life

Question 79

Describe:

• “Prospective memory”
  
  • Give some examples or POOR Prospective Memory

Answer 79

• the ability to remember to do something at some FUTURE TIME
  
  • ex: patient forgets to take their medication (poor Prospective Memory), forgetting to return a library book, etc.

Question 80

• Memory Construction:
  
  • The ___, ___, or ___ of what kind of memories?

Answer 80

1. Creation
2. Fabrication, or
3. Recall

of FALSE MEMORIES!

Question 81

• Confabulation
  
  • Define it
  • What 2 things is it usually observed in?

Answer 81

​

is the fabrication of false, but usually vivid and detailed memories

• in order to fill in the gaps in a coherent story or memory

Usually observed in people with:

1. Alzheimers
2. Korsakoff’s

Question 82

• Describe the “Misinformation Effect”

Answer 82

• the presentation of inaccurate post-event information can:
  
  • cause an otherwise ACCURATE memory to be altered and recalled INACCURATELY

Question 83

• Source monitoring errors
  
  • sometimes called “___ ___”
  • define

Answer 83

• recall errors in which the source of the memory is inaccurately identified
• Sometimes called “source amnesia”

Question 84

• During recall, the individual makes one of two judgments to determine the SOURCE: (2)

Answer 84

1. Heuristic Judgments:
   
   • UNCONSCIOUS determination of the source based on clues or short-cuts associated with the memory
2. Systematic Judgments:
   
   • CONSCIOUS determination of the source based on intentional, logical evaluation of the details remembered

Question 85

• Physical changes to ___ ___ (in the brain) account for learning & memory

Answer 85

• changes to neuronal synapsis

Question 86

• Define “neural plasticity”
  
  • What 3 things change?

Answer 86

• refers to ability of the brain and its neurons to physically CHANGE in response to stimuli

1. synapses
2. dendrites
3. glial cells

Question 87

Plasticity is closely associated with 3 events/processes:

Answer 87

1. Development
2. Memory storage (learning)
3. CNS injury

Question 88

Compared to adult brains, baby brains contain: (3)

Answer 88

• SAME number of neurons
• MORE synapses
• FEWER glial cells
  
  • glial cells=support cells, like oligodendrocytes

Question 89

Describe Synaptic Pruning during development

Answer 89

• Number of synapses decrease through:
  
  • selective destruction of some synapses
  • strengthening of others
• WEAKEST/LEAST FREQUENTLY USED
  
  • Get pruned out
• STRONGEST/MOST FREQUENTLY USED
  
  • Get strengthened

Question 90

• How does neural plasticity work:
  
  • during Memory Storage (learning)?

Answer 90

• Its theorized that STM may result from TEMPORARY chemical or electrical traces that fade quickly
• LTM traces, however, are always result of PHYSICAL changes to neuron itself

Question 91

• LTM traces (unlike STM traces), are always the result of what?

Answer 91

• PHYSICAL changes to the neuron itself
• A neuron can:
  
  1. Grow additional dendrites
     
     • to strengthen neuronal connection
  2. Alter the synaptic membrane to either increase or decrease the strength of an individual synapse

Question 92

• Describe Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
  
  • What thing has been found to have (+) correlation with LTP?

Answer 92

• is the persistent strengthening of a synapse
  
  • …based on increased activity at that particular synapse
• An increase in gene expression (transcription and translation of the gene product protein) has (+) correlation with LTP

Question 93

• Describe Long-Term Depression (LTD)
  
  • What is it the opposite of?

Answer 93

• is the persistent WEAKENING of a synapse
  
  • …due to decreased activity
• The opposite of Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Question 94

• How does synaptic pruning work after a CNS injury?

Answer 94

• after a traumatic brain injury, portions of the brain will sometimes reassign function to a different brain location
  
  • In severe cases, one full HEMISPHERE (!!) is removed so as to prevent seizures
  • If this happens early enough in life, the remaining hemisphere takes over ALL function from the broken hemisphere and the pt can live a normal life! YAY!

Question 95

• Describe “Habituation”

Answer 95

• a decreased response to a stimulus
  
  • …after the stimulus has been presented multiple times
• Basically, it’s a reduced response observed for an INNATE (unconscious) behavior

Question 96

Dishabituation is…?

Answer 96

• an increased response to a stimulus
  
  • after habituation has ALREADY occurred
• The old stimulus is suddenly reacted to as if it were NEW

Question 97

When does dishabituation usually occur?

Answer 97

• after a long period of stimulation
  
  • (when habituation is becoming significant)
• …and a second stimulus is then introduced
  
  • This disrupts the process of habituation

Question 98

Give an example of habituation

Answer 98

• A turtle brings its head under its shell when you touch its shell
  
  • after being touched enough times, the turtle realizes it’s not in danger and no longer hides

Question 99

Give an example of “Dishabituation”

Answer 99

• Playing Peek-a-boo with a baby
  
  • when we respond to an old stimulus as if it were new again

Question 100

• Define Sensitization
  
  • What’s it the opposite of?

Answer 100

• an INCREASED response to a stimulus
  
  • after the stimulus has been presented multiple times
• is the OPPOSITE of habituation

Question 101

What’s an example of Sensitization?

Answer 101

• You become very sensitive to subtle vibrations in your car after you’ve driven it for a long time
• You know something is “off”

Question 102

Define Classical Conditioning

Answer 102

• learning to associate one stimulus with another

Question 103

When you see “Classical conditioning,” think:

Answer 103

• Classical conditioning=
  
  • INSTINCTUAL responses!

Question 104

What’s the most common example of classical conditioning?

Answer 104

Pavlov’s Dogs (instinctual response)

Question 105

What are the 3 Stimulus types?

Answer 105

1. Neutral
2. Conditional
3. Unconditioned

Question 106

What are the 2 Response types?

Answer 106

1. Conditioned Response
2. Unconditioned Response

Question 107

• List the 4 Conditioning Processes

Answer 107

1. Acquisition
2. Extinction
3. Spontaneous recovery
4. Generalization

Question 108

• Neutral stimulus
  
  • In Pavlov’s study, what was the neutral stimulus?

Answer 108

• is a stimulus that:
  
  • does not elicit a response in the absence of learning

ex: THE BELL that was used in Pavlov’s study

Question 109

• Unconditioned stimulus
  
  • In Pavlov’s Study, what was the unconditioned stimulus?

Answer 109

• A stimulus that naturally elicits a response
  ex: SIGHT/SMELL OF STEAK caused dogs to salivate

Question 110

• Conditioned stimulus
  
  • In Pavlov’s Study, what was his conditioned stimulus?

Answer 110

• If a neutral stimulus is repeated paired with some stimulus that naturally elicits a response (an “unconditioned stimulus”)
  ex: pavlov linked the BELL with the SIGHT/SMELL of steak to create a conditioned stimulus

Question 111

With conditioning, what has to happen for a stimulus to be “acquired?”

Answer 111

• Associations b/t the neutral and conditioned stimuli makes it so the once-neutral stimuli is now a conditioned stimulus

Question 112

With conditioning, what leads to extinction?

Answer 112

• Association extinguished by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimuli (bell) WITHOUT the unconditioned stimuli (steak)

Question 113

What in conditioning is the phenomenon of Spontaneous Recovery?

Answer 113

• Subject shows a conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus, even though the conditioned stimulus has been extinguished
  
  • ex: Pavlov’s dogs react to bell sound years after the study (and extinction of the stimulus)

Question 114

In conditioning, what is “generalization?”

Answer 114

• When individuals generalize a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to, but not identical to the conditioned stimulus itself

Question 115

In conditioning, what is “discrimination?”

Answer 115

• Subjects learn to respond to ONLY the specific, conditioned stimulus itself, while ignoring other very similar stimuli
  
  • ​ex: Pavlov’s dog’s dont respond to higher-pitched bells

Question 116

Define Operant Conditioning

Answer 116

learning to associate a behavior with a CONSEQUENCE

Question 117

Name the 2 Operant Processes

Answer 117

1. Shaping
2. Extinction

Question 118

Name the 4 types of operant conditioning Reinforcement

Answer 118

1. Positive
2. Negative
3. Primary
4. Conditioned

Question 119

Operant conditioning: shaping

Answer 119

• involves reinforcing success approximations for some target behavior
  
  • ex: have a dog do something similar to sitting until you have it regularly sitting on command

Question 120

Operant conditioning: Extinction

Answer 120

occurs when a behavior results in NO consequences

Question 121

Operant conditioning: positive reinforcement

Answer 121

presenting something that results in reinforcement

Question 122

What is “reinforcement” in operant conditioning?

Answer 122

defined as anything that makes a behavior more like to occur in the future

Question 123

Operant conditioning: negative reinforcement

Answer 123

• Involves REMOVING something to reinforce a behavior
  
  • Ex: Car beeps at you until you buckle your seatbelt
    
    • Remove annoying beeping sound to reinforce behavior of buckling up

Question 124

What is “punishment” in operant conditioning?

Answer 124

anything that makes a behavior less likely to occur

Question 125

• Operant conditioning: positive punishment
  
  • Describe
  • Give an example

Answer 125

• Involves presenting/ doing something/”adding something” to result in punishment
  
  • make the behavior less likely
• ex: Spanking

Question 126

• Operant conditioning: negative punishment
  
  • Describe
  • Give an example

Answer 126

• Removing something to make behavior less likely to occur in future
  
  • ex: no phone, video games, grounding, etc

Question 127

• Operant conditioning:
  
  • a ___ reinforcer has no intrinsic value in and of itself
    
    • ​…but gains it because it has been associated with a ___ ___
    • Give an example of this

Answer 127

“Conditioned Reinforcer”

• associated with a “Primary reinforcer”
  
  • ex: Green paper with presidents is “worthless,” but since in the past it has been paired with food, clothes, shelter, etc.

it takes on reinforcing value by association

Question 128

What are the 4 Reinforcement Schedules?

Answer 128

1. Fixed-Ratio
2. Variable-Ratio
3. Fixed-Interval
4. Variable-Interval

Question 129

What does punishment do to behavioral response? (3)

Answer 129

Punishment either:

1. ​Weakens the response
2. Decreases its frequency, or
3. Stops it altogether

Question 130

• DONT think of “punishment” in terms of “good” or “bad”
  
  • Focus on what instead?

Answer 130

• Focus on what punishments DO:

Discourage the behavior

Question 131

What does reinforcement do to behavior? (3)

Answer 131

1. Encourages it
2. Strengthens it, or
3. Increases its frequency

Question 132

What are the 2 reactions to negative reinforcement?

Answer 132

1. Escape learning:
   
   • subj. adopts a behavior to reduce or end an unpleasant stimulus
2. Avoidance stimulus:
   
   • subj. adopts a behavior to AVOID an unpleasant stimulus in the future

Question 133

• What are the 2 ways one can learn to associate two events?

Answer 133

1. Automatic:
   
   • unconscious
   • stimulus driven
2. Rule-Based Processing:
   
   • CONSCIOUS
   • Intentional

Question 134

• What 2 things “drive” Rule-based processing
  
  • (when associating two events)
• What does it LIMIT?
• Why are humans “weird” when it comes to this?

Answer 134

• Driven by both:
  
  1. The event (stimulus) experienced
  2. Language, cognition, or formal reasoning

Limits the applicability of Associative Learning!

• Humans are weird because we learn to “expect” or “anticipate” an unconditioned stimulus
• …and will apply external reasoning in order to alter (or avoid) the conditioning process

Question 135

Latent Learning. define & give an example

Answer 135

• Learning that exists WITHOUT the presentation of a reward,
  
  • …but is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward IS presented
• Basically, you CAN still learn without any kind of conditioning
  
  • mice in a maze learn to negotiate maze w/o any reinforcement
  • BUT when food reward is offered they negotiate better

Question 136

• What are the four LIMITS on Associative Learning?

Answer 136

1. Latent learning
2. Biological predispositions
3. Rules-based processing
4. Instinctive drift

Question 137

Wrt associative learning, what are “biological predispositions?”

Answer 137

• Every subject (animal or human) has biological instincts that predispose them toward adaptive responses
  
  • DECREASING the likelihood that conditioned responses contrary to those predispositions endure

Question 138

• Describe “Instinctive Drift”
  
  • What is it a limit on?

Answer 138

• The tendency of a subject of operant conditioning to revert from a conditioned response to an INSTINCTUAL response
  
  • often one that is very similar to the conditioned response

​Is a limit on the applicability of associative learning

Question 139

Observational learning

Answer 139

• Learning that results from observation of the behavior of others

Question 140

Define “Social-cognitive theory”

Answer 140

• a broad psychological perspective that attempts to explain
  
  • behavior
  • learning, and
  • other phenomena

It INCLUDES observational learning as one of its tenants

Question 141

What are the 4 tenants of social-cognitive theory?

Answer 141

1. Observational learning
2. Self-efficacy
3. Situational influences
4. Cognitive processes

Question 142

Bobo doll experiment. What were the results?

Answer 142

• Kids exposed to aggressive model (adult that beat up bobo doll) were more likely to act aggressively
• When both genders were exposed to aggressive models, boys more aggressive than girls

Question 143

In observational learning, what is “modeling?”

Answer 143

the process of learning a behavior by watching others and mimicking their behavior

Question 144

Observing others may result in what wrt “modeling?” (3)

Answer 144

1. We might learn to mimick what they do
2. We might learn to NOT mimick their behavior
3. It might motivate us to engage entirely unrelated behaviors

• Ex:
  
  • Dad sees someone fall and die mtn climbing
  • decides mtn climbing isnt for him anymore and picks up crocheting

Question 145

• What are “mirror neurons?”
  
  • Give an example of when they are used

Answer 145

• are a class of neuron that are active when we watch someone else perform a behavior and again when we do the behavior OURSELVES
• ex: see someone’s facial expression of emotion and later we make that same face ourselves

Question 146

What GPS principle does this represent?

Answer 146

figure ground (pragnanz)

The eye differentiates an object from its surrounding area. A form, silhouette, or shape is perceived as the FIGURE, while the surrounding area is perceived as the GROUND

Question 147

What GPS principle does this represent?

Answer 147

focal points:

a point of interest, something emphasized or different will catch and hold the viewers attention

Question 148

What GPS principle does this represent?

Answer 148

closure:

in perception, there is the tendency to complete unfinished or partially obscured objects

Question 149

What GPS principle does this represent?

Answer 149

figure ground (pragnanz):

The eye differentiates an object from its surrounding area. A form, silhouette, or shape is perceived as the FIGURE, while the surrounding area is perceived as the GROUND

Question 150

What GPS principle does this represent?

Answer 150

proximity:

the closer objects are to each other, the more likely they are to be perceived as a group

Question 151

What GPS principle does this represent?

Answer 151

closure:

in perception there is the tendency to complete unfinished or partially obscured objects

Question 152

What GPS principle does this represent?

Answer 152

figure ground (pragnanz):

The eye differentiates an object from its surrounding area. A form, silhouette, or shape is perceived as the FIGURE, while the surrounding area is perceived as the GROUND

Question 153

What GPS principle does this represent?

Answer 153

similarity:

when objects look similar to one another. People often perceive them as a group or pattern

Question 154

Name the Ten most frequently cited GP’s (Gestalt Principles)

Answer 154

1. Closure
2. Continuation
3. Common Fate
4. Proximity
5. Similarity
6. Continuity
7. Good Gestalt
8. Symmetry
9. Past Experience
10. Convexity

Question 155

The olfactory is an ____ pathway of the ___division of the PNS

Answer 155

• afferent
• somatic

Question 156

• Perception and decision making would occur in a variety of _____s in the CNS/PNS?

Answer 156

• interneurons
• CNS

Question 157

• Motor neurons are ____ nerve fibers of the ___ division of the CNS/PNS?

Answer 157

• efferent
• somatic
• Peripheral NS

Question 158

• Any memory lasting more than_____ has most likely encoded into long term memory

Answer 158

20-30 sec

Question 159

• What is the transmission pathway of an auditory impulse, in order, from the hair cells to the auditory cortex?

Answer 159

1. Hair cells of the inner ear
2. Vesibulocochlear nerve
3. Brain stem
4. Medial geniculate nucleus (MGN)
   
   • part of the thalamus
5. Auditory cortex
   
   • part of the temporal lobe

Question 160

Smell, aka “___”

Answer 160

olfaction

Question 161

• Olfactory cells are called ______s because they are triggered by ___ ___s that directly bind specific gaseous/vaporized airborne _____s

Answer 161

• chemoreceptors
• membrane receptors
• chemicals

Question 162

• What are “Phermones?”
  
  • What are they more established/common in?

Answer 162

• Specialized odor receptors released by one individual
  
  • elicit behavior in another individual upon olfaction (smell)

More established/common in animals than in humans

Question 163

Taste: _____s on the tongue bind ___ ___s, such as ___

Answer 163

• chemoteceptors
• dissolved chemicals
• such as salt

Question 164

What is the pathway for Taste? (3)

Answer 164

1. Taste buds
2. Brain stem
3. Taste center
   
   • in the thalamus

Question 165

• What is somatosensation?
  
  • What does it include (7)?

Answer 165

• basically, it’s “touch,” but it includes:
  
  1. touch
  2. texture
  3. pain
  4. pressure
  5. temperature
  6. stretching
  7. vibration

Question 166

The somatosensory cortex is in the ___ lobe

Answer 166

parietal

Question 167

the olfactory bulb is located in the ___

Answer 167

forebrain

Question 168

Kinesthetic sense

Answer 168

• Body position and the mvmt of body parts relative to one another

Question 169

• Vestibular Sense
  
  • Describe
  • What does it use for detection?

Answer 169

Balance and orientation

• by responding to changes in linear and rotational acceleration
• detected by HAIR CELLS in the vestibule and the semicircular canals

Question 170

Remember that sensation and perception are…

Answer 170

NOT EQUAL!!

Question 171

Think of “sensation” as…

Answer 171

• a physiological process
  
  • sensory receptors and APs

Question 172

Think of “perception” as…

Answer 172

• a PSYCHOlogical process
• “Making sense” of the signal
  
  • Influenced by: experience, bias, etc.

Question 173

Bottom-Up processing

Answer 173

• involves taking individual elements and putting them together to make a whole

Question 174

Top-Down processing

• Involves ______ factors that influence the way in which components are ______ed
• Higher level _______s “LET” you _____ something

Answer 174

• Involves cognitive factors that influence the way in which components are processed
• higher level expectations“LET“ you perceive something

Question 175

The concept of “schemas” is most closely related to which type of processing, bottom-up or top-down?

Answer 175

top-down

Question 176

What does “Perceptual Organization” refer to?

Answer 176

• Our ability to use what info we DO have about an incomplete stimulus, such as:
  
  • depth
  • form
  • motion
  • constancy
• …to “fill in the blanks,” and thereby perceive a whole, continuous picture

Question 177

• Based on Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting, rank the following time intervals, measured from the first day a memory was encoded, in order of increasing percentage of memory loss:
  
  1. Day 1-2
  2. Days 3-5
  3. Days 12-20
  4. Days 2-10

Answer 177

12-20 < 3-5 < 2-10 < 1-2

• The point here is that the closer to the point at which rehearsal ends…

​the more information is lost more quickly

After the first few days, there is a very gradual decay in the information that is retained

Question 178

DISCRIMINATION

• For the two examples that follow, identify the specific component of the example that illustrates each of following (if they apply):
• a) neutral, conditioned, or unconditioned stimulus
• b) conditioned or unconditioned response
• c) acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, or discrimination.

Example 1

• A physically abused child reflexively raises his hand to cover his face when his father is about to strike him
• His father smokes heavily and the child knows his father is nearby when he smells cigarette smoke
• At first, the child does not like the smell of cigarette smoke, but mostly ignores it
• After some time, however, the child begins to flinch at the mere smell of cigarette smoke
  
  • The child moves away from home and lives with roommates who also smoke
    
    • Eventually he loses his fear of cigarette smoke
• Many years later, the child revisits his childhood home, long after his father has passed away
• Upon entering the house he smells the strong odor of stale cigarette smoke
• To his surprise, it makes him cringe

Example 2

• An elderly man’s wife begins a new habit of baking bread weekly
• The man loves his wife’s homemade bread and the smell of it cooking makes him salivate
• His wife uses a wind-up oven timer to tell her when the bread is ready to remove from the oven
• A few weeks later, his wife is using the same timer to keep track of her exercise on the treadmill
• At the end of her exercise routine the man often tells his wife that he is hungry and asks for some homemade bread
• A short-time later, the man realizes that the sound of his alarm clock also makes him salivate and crave homemade bread
• However, because his wife never makes homemade bread in the mornings, this reaction eventually fades–
  
  • ​until once again he only salivates to the sound of the oven timer

Answer 178

Example 1

• The abuse received from the father serves as an unconditioned stimulus which cause flinching behavior (unconditioned response)
• The smell of smoke is at first a neutral stimulus, but after repeated pairings with the abuse, the child acquires an association between the smell of smoke and the abuse
• At this point, the smell becomes a conditioned stimulus which elicits the conditioned response of flinching
• Once the child moves in with roommates who smoke, the fear response to smoke is extinguished because the smoke is no longer paired with the abusive father
• However, the fear response spontaneously recovers when the individual revisits his childhood home

Example 2

• The smell of homemade bread serves as the unconditioned stimulus which elicits salivation/hunger (unconditioned response)
• The timer is a neutral stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the smell of the bread, and eventually, it takes on the role of a conditioned stimulus which elicits the conditioned response of salivation/hunger
• Eventually, the man’s conditioned response generalizes to like stimuli (i.e. the alarm clock), but over time, the man shows discrimination in his response ONLY to the oven timer

Question 179

Sensing the Environment

• Define “Sensation” (3 steps, or “-ion” s)
  
  • Also define “Threshold”

Answer 179

Sensation is the…

• Detection of environmental stimuli
  
  • by sensory receptors
• Conversion of that stimuli
  
  • …to an electrical impulse
• Transmission of that impulse
  
  • to the Central Nervous System (CNS)

Threshold

• The MINIMUM magnitude of a stimulus,

OR

• The minimum DIFFERENCE IN magnitude between two stimuli
• …that can be perceived by the CNS*

Question 180

Sensing the Environment

• Sensation
  
  • Threshold

Provide a conceptual definition for:

1. Absolute threshold
2. Threshold of conscious perception/detection
3. Difference threshold
   
   • a.k.a., “Just-Noticeable-Difference,” JND

Answer 180

• Several different thresholds are of import when considering how sensory systems detect information from our external worlds

The Absolute threshold

• Communicates information about how sensitive a given sensory system is
• It is usually defined as the minimum amount of stimulation that can be detected about 50% of the time
  
  • Put another way, the absolute threshold tells you how bright (or dim ) a light must be or how loud a sound must be in order to be detected half of the time

​Any stimulus that falls below this minimum value would fail to cross a “Threshold for conscious detection”

• It might be possible that stimuli of which we are not consciously aware influence us in some way
  
  • e.g. subliminal messages in advertising
• However, consistent empirical support of this idea is lacking

Difference thresholds, a.k.a., “Just-Noticeable-Difference,” JND

• Speak to our ability to discriminate among sensory stimuli of varying intensities
• In other words, the JND is determined by how much difference must exist between two stimuli in order to determine that one is* MORE (or LESS) intense than the other

Question 181

Vision

• The Eye

Describe Cones & Rods

• How do they relate to e/o when it comes to sensitivity?
• How are they different wrt resolution of detail?
• What colors can/do they emit?
• How many pigments do they have?

Relative # of cones/rods=?

Answer 181

CONES:

• Less sensitive than rods
• Perceive:
  
  • Color
  • Fine resolution of detail
• Contain 3 PIGMENTS
  
  • Each of which show maximum light absorption at a different λ
    
    • The three “max absorption” λ’s are roughly equivalent to:
      
      • Blue, Green and Red

NOTE: Relative # of cones = X

RODS:

• Highly sensitive (“Rod is such a wuss!”)
• Perceive black & white only
• Poor resolution of detail
• Contain only ONE pigment (rhodopsin)

NOTE: Relative # of rods = 20X

Question 182

Vision

• Optics

1. The lens of the human eye is a ______ lens and therefore always produces a _____ image
2. Light rays are bent primarily by the ____, and only adjusted by the _____
3. Lasik surgery reshapes the _____, NOT the ____
4. A ___ ___ exists for each eye where the _____ _____ passes through the retina

Answer 182

1. The lens of the human eye is a converging lens and therefore always produces a PRI image
2. Light rays are bent primarily by the cornea, and only adjusted by the lens
3. Lasik surgery reshapes the cornea, NOT the lens
4. A blind spot exists for each eye where the optic nerve passes through the retina

Question 183

Vision

• Optics
  
  • A student makes the proclamation “The cells of the retina appear to be arranged upside down!”

Explain this observation and why it helps account for the existence of a blind spot (aka the “optical ____“)

Answer 183

The retina is arranged such that the photoreceptors face away from the light

• …and then make connections with several layers of cells that are closer to the source of the incoming light
• So, in a way, the retina is indeed arranged*

“upside down”

Because the retinal ganglion cells are actually on the outside layer of the retina that is closest to the source of incoming light

• …their axons actually have to project back through the retina
  
  • …in order to form the optic nerve to travel to the brain

The place at which all of the axons of the retinal ganglion cells project through the rear of the eye, therefore, have NO photoreceptors

This area is known as the optic disc or the “blind spot”

Question 184

Vision

• Optics

Describe the factors that determine when a person is near- or far-sighted

• Where is the image formed in both cases?
• What type of lens is needed to correct each condition?

Answer 184

​In normally-sighted individuals, images coming into the eye are focused directly ON the retina

Nearsightedness (myopia)

• is generally associated with either an elongation of the eye or severe curvature of the cornea such that the image tends to focus too early
  
  • This results in people having more difficulty seeing things at a distance

Farsightedness (hyperopioa)

• is associated with an eye that is too short or a cornea that doesn’t curve enough
• In this case, people have more difficulty seeing things that are relatively close

In _both_ cases, the problems with eyeshape and/or curvature of the cornea can be corrected with eyeglasses, contact lenses, and/or surgery

Question 185

What is the transmission pathway of an OLFACTORY IMPULSE

• In order, from the olfactory epithelium to higher-order brain centers?
• HINT: SNeering Ned Bugs B​rian*

Answer 185

1. Olfactory SENSORY NEURONS
   
   • located in olfactory epithelium of the upper nasal cavity
2. Olfactory NERVE
   
   • cranial nerve 1
3. Olfactory BULB
   
   • forebrain
4. Higher-order BRAIN centers
   
   • varies:
     
     • amygdala
     • hippocampus
     • orbitofrontal cortex, etc.

Question 186

Sensation

• Threshold

Define “Absolute Threshold”

• What kind of information about a sensory system does it communicate?
• Numerically, how often should you be able to detect a stimuli for it to reach “Absolute Threshold?”

Answer 186

Absolute threshold

Communicates information about how sensitive a given sensory system is

Definition:

is the minimum amount of stimulation that can be detected about 50% of the time

• Put another way, the absolute threshold tells you how bright (or dim ) a light must be or how loud a sound must be
• ….in order to be detected HALF OF THE TIME*

Question 187

Sensation

• Threshold

Describe:

“Threshold for Conscious Detection/Perception”

Answer 187

Threshold for conscious detection

• ​Any stimulus that falls BELOW the minimum value (aka “Absolute Threshold”) would FAIL to cross the Threshold of conscious detection/perception

THINK: Subliminal Messages

• It might be possible that stimuli of which we are not consciously aware are able to influence us in some way
  
  • e.g. subliminal messages in advertising
    
    • “OBEY MY DOG!”

However, consistent empirical support

of this idea is lacking

Question 188

Which hypothesis is LEAST relevant to the role of amyloid precursor protein (APP) in the formation of β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques?

A

• A mutation in the enzyme responsible for processing APP causes an increased concentration of Aβ

B

• A defect in the blood brain barrier causes decreased transport of APP from the cerebrospinal fluid to the blood plasma

C

• A defect in the blood brain barrier causes increased transport of APP from the blood plasma to the cerebrospinal fluid

D

• A defect in the blood brain barrier causes increased transport of APP from the cerebrospinal fluid to the blood plasma

Answer 188

D

EXCESS A.P.P IN CNS ⇒ β- Amyloid plaque buildup

• This is a LEAST relevant question, so any answer that is relevant is incorrect

The common thread between theories regarding the formation of β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques is an accumulation of amyloid precursor protein (APP)

• This is analogous to the basic science concept of precipitate formation in solution chemistry, in that:
  
  • when there is enough UNprocessed APP (or solute) it will aggregate, or precipitate, as a β-amyloid (Aβ) plaque
• Because of this, any answer that can at least partially explain a higher than normal concentration of APP in the CNS is relevant (and therefore incorrect)
• Answer A is incorrect, a mutation in the enzyme responsible for processing APP could result in increased concentrations of APP and thus the formation of β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques, especially if β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques can cross the blood brain barrier
• Answers B and C are both incorrect, any defect in the blood brain barrier causing an increased concentration of APP/Aβ would be relevant to the formation of β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques
• Answer B’s defect results in decreased CLEARANCE of APP/Aβ from the CNS to the blood plasma
• Answer C’s defect results in an increased INTAKE of APP/Aβ into the CNS

Answer D is correct

A hypothesis suggesting increased transport of APP from the cerebrospinal fluid to the blood plasma would indicate a higher clearance from the central nervous system

• and ∴ a lower overall APP concentration in the brain

Question 189

After eating a pineapple, a patient contracted a bacterial infection. The patient now has an extreme dislike for the taste of pineapple.

Which process has occurred?

A

• Taste sensation has been observationally conditioned

B

• Taste aversion has been classically conditioned

C

• Taste response has been operantly conditioned

D

• Nausea aversion has been instrumentally conditioned

Answer 189

B

Some conditioning has occurred in the scenario in the stem, but it is unlikely that observational or instrumental conditioning has occurred eliminating Answers A and D

• To differentiate between Answers B and C we need to decide whether classical or operant conditioning has occurred

The association between vomiting and pineapple is an example of CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Natural response), and thus Answer B is the best answer

Question 190

EPISODIC memory is an example of ____ memory

Answer 190

EXPLICIT

• What were you doing when the Trade Towers collapsed?
  
  • (Requires conscious recall)

Question 191

Describe THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE

• What type of memory is it a part of?
• What 2 things make it up?
• What are its roles (2)?
• When is an example of a time you’d be using the Central Executive?

Answer 191

Part of the WORKING memory!!!

The Central Executive portion of working memory is comprised of both the:

1. Phonological Loop, and
2. Visuospatial Sketchpad

The ROLE of the Central Executive is to:

1. Suppress useless information
2. Direct attention to useful information

You’d be using the Central Executive to process visual & audio information while playing video games

Question 192

What is a “FLASHBULB Memory?”

• What do they involve?
• Give a personal example of a flashbulb memory YOU have

Answer 192

Flashbulb memories

• Are memories that correspond to an emotional event
• Involve vivid recall of the contextual details (where you were, what you were doing, etc.) associated with the memory

Ex:

• I remember 9/11 was on a TUESDAY, because the night before Ed Mccaffrey broke his leg on MNF
• I was going to talk about that with the kids on the bus, but then I heard about the Towers.

Question 193

The Ear

• What does the EXTERNAL AUDITORY CANAL do?

Answer 193

Funnels sound waves INTO the ear, and

causes the tympanic membrane to VIBRATE

Question 194

The Ear

• What are the names of the 3 OSSICLES?
• HINT: “-us” or “-es”*
• Which of these 3 presses into the oval window of the cochlea?

What CAUSES the ossicles to MOVE?

Answer 194

THE 3 OSSICLES:

1. Malleus
2. Incus
3. Stapes
   
   • ​The stapes actually presses into the oval window of the cochlea

Move because of the VIBRATION

of theTYMPANIC MEMBRANE

(which is vibrating because of sound waves that came through the

external auditory canal)

Question 195

The Ear

What happens in the COCHLEA as a result of:

• MOVEMENT of the 3 OSSICLES?
  
  • ​What happens as a result of THIS?

Answer 195

IHC’s distend⇒ converted into neural impulses

⇒off to the brain

INNER HAIR CELLS along the basilar membrane of

the fluid-filled cochlea are DISTENDED (see pic)

“Distended”=swollen due to pressure from inside; bloated

As a result, this is CONVERTED into NEURAL IMPULSES

that TRAVEL TO THE BRAIN for processing

Question 196

The Ear

• What do INNER Hair Cells (IHC’s) and OUTER Hair Cells (OHC’s) do?

Answer 196

INNER HAIR CELLS (IHC’s)

CONVERT mechanical DISPLACEMENT

(as a function of sound waves)

into NEURAL IMPULSES (⇒ off to the brain)

OUTER HAIR CELLS (OHC’s)

are involved in AMPLIFYING SOUND WAVES

Question 197

The Ear

• STEREOCILIA
  
  • Are found WHERE?
  • How do they differ from “NORMAL” cilia?
    
    • Why is this difference important?

Answer 197

STEREOCILIA

• found in the Organ of Corti

Differ from other cilia because:

They do NOT move like the cilia that sweep debris from the respiratory tract

Rather, they are moved by:

MOVEMENT IN THE FLUID THAT SURROUNDS THEM

These movements are important for:

• Communicating sensory information (either auditory or vestibular) to the CNS

Question 198

The Ear

ORGAN OF CORTI

• Is know as the “_______ of the body”
• What does this organ contain?

Answer 198

Organ of Corti=

MICROPHONE of the Body

Contain the hair cells (IHC’s & OHC’s)

that give rise to nerve signals

in response to sound vibrations