Peach Pack Flashcards
1
Q
What does a Ratio do?
A
It is a way to compare quantities
2
Q
Why are Estimates very useful for psychologists?
A
They help the researcher understand the data in very large data sets
3
Q
What are Significant Figures?
A
A method of finding an approximated or estimated answer to a calculation is to round of using significant figures
4
Q
When is Standard Form useful?
A
When writing very big or very small numbers
5
Q
What are Descriptive Statistics?
A
- Used to describe the main trends in data
- Used to summarise the raw data from research into a more meaningful form to help researchers draw conclusions from the results
6
Q
What does Descriptive Statistics include?
A
- Measures of central tendency - mean, median, mode
- Measures of dispersion - range, standard deviation
- Graphical representations of data - bar charts, pie chart, scatter graphs, histograms and frequency distribution
7
Q
What are the 3 Main Types of Central Tendency?
A
- Mean
- Median
- Mode
8
Q
What is a Measure of Central Tendency?
A
The value in a group of values which is the most typical for the data set
9
Q
What is the Strength of the Mean?
A
All information in a set of data is used so it is the most powerful measure of central tendency and is likely to be representative of the data
10
Q
What is are the Weaknesses of the Mean?
A
- It is sensitive, so distorted when an extreme school is present - so it is no longer representative of the set of data
- Not meaningful when used with certain types of data - mean can’t be found when data is in mutually exclusive categories
- It doesn’t reflect real-life
11
Q
What is the Strength of the Median?
A
Not distorted by an extreme scores, so provides a more representative value for the data set
12
Q
What are the Weaknesses of the Median?
A
- Doesn’t take account of the exact value of each item, so it’s less sensitive to the value of each piece of data
- Less meaningful with very small sets of data
- Not meaningful when used with certain types of data - e.g. data in the form of frequency counts in mutually exclusive categories
13
Q
What is the Strength of the Mode?
A
- Most useful with data in the form of frequency counts in mutually exclusive categories - it tells us what the most frequently occurring score or category is
- Not influenced by extreme scores in skewed data
14
Q
What are the Weaknesses of the Mode?
A
- Not useful when a set of data has many modes
- If there are only a few scores, then even small changes in the data can radically alter the mode
- Doesn’t give a proper representation of the dataset as it isn’t sensitive
15
Q
What are Measures of Dispersion?
A
Measure of whether our scores are clustered closely around the mean or are scattered widely
16
Q
How do Measures of Dispersion help us?
A
Help us to see whether scores are similar or very different from each other which can be useful when comparing two sets of data
17
Q
What is the Strength of the Range?
A
•Quick and easy to calculate
18
Q
What are the Weaknesses of the Range?
A
- Becomes less effective measure of dispersion when being used with skewed data as it is distorted by extreme scores
- Gives very little information about the spread of data
19
Q
What are the different Measures of Dispersion?
A
- The range
* Standard deviation
20
Q
What is Standard Deviation?
A
Gives a measure of how much on average each of the scores in the dataset deviates from the mean
21
Q
What are the Strengths of Standard Deviation?
A
- Most sensitive + powerful measure of dispersion and is likely to be representative of the data, so shows accurately whether a set of data is tightly clustered around the mean or very spread out
- Less distorted by skewed data than the range so can be preferable
22
Q
When drawing and interpreting graphs, what must you take into account?
A
- Axes need to be clearly labelled + the graph needs an informative title
- Care needs to be taken in the scale chosen What is Standard Deviation?
23
Q
What do Tables, Graphs and Charts do?
A
They provide visual summaries which can show any major patterns or trends in the data
24
Q
What does a Group Frequency Table Help?
A
- It helps to display and give an overview of the data
* The smaller the group width, the more accurate the analysis will be
25
What do Frequency Diagrams show?
The frequencies for different groups
26
What are Bar Charts useful for?
Comparing data that falls into categories
27
What are Pie Charts?
A way of summarising a set of categorical data or displaying proportions
28
What are Scatter Diagrams used for?
Used to a relationship between two variables
29
What does the Resulting a Pattern in a Scatter Diagrams indícate?
The type and strength of the correlation between two variables
30
What are Histograms used for?
To summarise data that are measured on an interval scale
31
What does the term Distribution refer to?
The way data from a test, task or measurement is spread out or distributed
32
What does the term Distribution tell you?
Whether data is gathered towards:
•Lower end of the set of scores or measures = positively skewed distribution
•Higher end of dataset = negatively skewed
•Towards the middle = normal distribution
33
What is a Normal Distribution?
* Produces a bell shaped curve that is perfectly symmetrical about the mean
* Mean, median + mode are equal - so they’re all in the middle
34
What is a Positively Skewed Distribution?
* When mode < median < mean the data is positively skewed
* Scores or measures are mainly towards the lower end of the distribution but there’s a score that is very high
* Mean is pulled upwards towards high score
* Median stays in middle of distribution as it isn’t influenced by extreme scores
* Mode will be at peak of curve as it’s most frequently occurring
35
What is a Negatively Skewed Distribution?
* When mean < median < mode the data is negatively skewed
* Scores or measures are mainly towards the higher end of the distribution but there’s a score that is very low
* Mean is pulled downwards towards this low score
* Median stays in middle of distribution as it isn’t influenced by extreme scores
* Mode will be at peak of curve as it’s most frequently occurring
36
What is the Scientific Method?
* Behaviour is noticed
* Theories developed to explain this behaviour
* Hypotheses or research questions written
* Studies + procedures are designed to test these predictions
* Systematic + controlled data collection takes place
* Analysis + interpretation of data collected, reaching conclusions
37
What are the Techniques for Collecting/Analysing Data?
* Experiments
* Self-report methods
* Observations
* Correlations
* Case studies
38
What is a Variable?
Anything that varies
39
In an Experiment, what is the researcher looking for?
A difference between 2 conditions
40
In a Correlation , what is the researcher looking for?
A link between 2 variables
41
In a Correlation , what do we wish to measure?
The nature of the association between 2 variables - these are known as co-variables
42
In an Experiment , what do we wish to measure?
The effect of one variable on another
43
What does the use of Experiments allow researchers to Establish?
Cause and effect links between 2 variables
44
In an Experiment, what is the Independent Variable?
The variable which is manipulated by the experimenter - the thing you change
45
In an Experiment, what is the Dependent Variable?
The outcome which is measured by the experimenter
46
What is an Alternate Hypothesis?
A prediction in the form of a testable statement
47
In a Correlation, what are Co-Variables?
The 2 variables in a correlation that vary (change) in association with one another
48
What does it mean if you Operationalise a Variable?
Say in precise terms how we will measure it or manipulate it
49
What is Validity?
Extent to which a study has measured what it claims to measure
50
What does it mean if you Operationalise an Experiment?
Say how we will manipulate the independent variable into its 2 conditions and how we will measure the dependent variable
51
What are examples of how you can collect data on how to measure variables in a correlational study?
* Give participants a test under controlled conditions
* Ask participants to self rate themselves
* Gather data on participants from data bases
* Observe participants a questionnaires that results in quantitative data
52
What are Extraneous Variables in an Experiment?
Any variable that might have an effect on the dependant variable (apart from the IV)
53
Why must Extraneous Variables be Controlled?
Otherwise they could become confounding variables
54
What are Confounding Variables?
Uncontrolled extraneous variables that have had an effect on results
55
What is a difference between an extraneous variable and a confounding variable?
* Extraneous variables have effects on the DV
| * Confounding variables have had an effect on the results
56
What is Reliability?
The extent to which a research finding is produced consistently over a number of investigations
57
What happens if confounding variables interferes with the variables that we are studying?
The reliability of the research is reduced as it can be difficult to replicate the research
58
How are Confounding Variables a threat to the Validity?
* They can influence how accurately we can measure the DV
| * So, our results have been confounded because we won’t be sure which variables have caused the effects we have observed
59
What are Situational Variables?
Variables in the research situation itself can have an effect on the dependent variable
60
What Method can you use to Control Situational Variables?
Standardisation
61
What is Standardisation?
The materials used usually have to be exactly the same for all participants so they experience the same conditions
62
What are Pilot Studies?
A smaller version of the actual study, allowing identification of problems + modification of materials
63
What are Sources of Extraneous Variables in Research?
* Situational variables
* Participant variables
* Order effects
* Demand characteristics
* Researcher effects
64
What are Participant Variables?
Variables from the individual participants which can have an effect on their performance
65
What are Examples of Participant Variables?
* Poor memory
| * High levels of intelligence
66
What is the Method used to Control Participant Variables?
Random allocation of participants (randomisation) - differences between individual participants are balanced out across the conditions
67
What are Order Effects?
The order in which participants carry out tasks in a study will have an effect on the outcome
68
What is an Example of Order Effects?
Performance may improve on a test of memory due to practice
69
When do Order Effects occur in research?
When the same group of participants are required to carry out a task twice
70
What Method is used to Control Order Effects?
Counterbalancing - half participants complete tasks in 1 order, the other half complete tasks in opposite order
71
What are Demand Characteristics?
All of the cues that participants might receive that indicate the purpose of all research
72
What is an Example of Demand Characteristics?
Instructions in an experiment or wording of questions in the questionnaire - participants may unconsciously change their behaviour as a result of these queues
73
What Method is used to Control Demand Characteristics?
Low levels of deception are used to throw participants off - key questions in the questionnaire put amongst other unimportant questions as a disguise
74
What are Researcher Effects?
If researcher knows aims of the study + an expected outcome, then they may struggle to remain objective + influence the results to reflect their expectations
75
What are Examples of Researcher Effects?
* Mis-recording results
* Influencing behaviour of participants by non-verbal or verbal communication
* Failing to follow standardised procedures accurately
76
What is a Method used to Control Researcher Effects?
Standardised procedures - everything that happens in research is set down like instructions that researchers must follow
77
What is an Example of Situational Variables?
Difference in conditions when participants are tested may influence the outcome - unexpected noise during a test could affect their performance + researchers may treat some differently
78
What is the Alternate Hypothesis?
A prediction in the form of a testable statement
79
What is an Experimental Hypothesis?
Predicts a cause + effect relationship between the IV and DV
80
What is a Directional Hypothesis (one-tailed hypothesis) and give an example?
* Predicts what direction the difference or correlation will be
* E.g. there will be a significant positive/negative difference between...
81
What is a Non-Directional Hypothesis (two-tailed hypothesis) and give an example?
* Predicts that there will be a difference or correlation allowing an outcome in either direction
* E.g. there will be a significant difference between
82
What is the Null Hypothesis?
* Predicts results will be due to chance
| * Always non-directional (2-tailed)
83
What is a Correlational Hypothesis?
Predicts an association between 2 co-variables
84
What is an Example of a Correlational Null Hypothesis?
* There will be more significant correlations between variable 1 and 2
* Any correlation between variable 1 and 2 will be due to chance
85
What is an Example of a Experimental Null Hypothesis?
* There will be no significant difference in the DV between IV1 and IV2
* Any difference in DV between IV1 and IV2 will be due to chance
86
What does the word Significant mean in a Hypothesis?
Results are statistically meaningful, not due to chance
87
Why would a researcher Accept their Alternate Hypothesis?
If the results are significant
88
Why would a researcher Accept their Null Hypothesis?
If the results are not significant
89
What is the Target Population?
The particular group are interested in studying from which we draw sample
90
What is a Representative Sample?
A group of participants drawn from the target population that is typical of that target population
91
What is a Representative Sample important?
Because it allows us to generalise from our results to the rest of the target population
92
When does Sampling Bias exist?
When a sample becomes weighted because of the over-representation of group of people - so it’s no longer appropriate to generalise from this sample
93
What is a possible Source of Sampling Bias?
From the use of volunteers in the investigation
94
What are the Sampling Techniques?
* Random sample
| * Non random sampling technique
95
What is a Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
A sample in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
96
What are Methods of selecting a Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
* Manual selection (lottery method)
| * Random number generators
97
What is the Advantage of Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
* In large samples, it provides the best chance of an unbiased representative sample
* As everyone has an opportunity of being chosen
98
What is the Disadvantage of Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
* Very easy to end up with a biased sample by chance
* Gathering names can become difficult due to legal restrictions - e.g. the data protection act (1998) may limit collecting a random sample
99
What are Opportunity Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
Involves the researcher selecting various participants that are available to them at the time of the study
100
What are Volunteer (Self-Selected Samples) as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
Participants consciously decided to become involved - they volunteer
101
What are Stratified Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
Dividing the target population into important into important strata or sub categories
102
What are the Advantages of Opportunity Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
* Quick
* Convenient
* Efficient
* Cheaper
103
What are the Disadvantages of Opportunity Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
Unrepresentative sample as it’s biased - might choose people who look more helpful, etc
104
What are the Advantages of Volunteer (Self-Selected Samples) as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
* Very ethical
* Easy
* Convenient
105
What are the Advantages of Stratified Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
* Sample will be fairly representative of that population
| * Credible conclusions can be drawn
106
What are the Disadvantages of Stratified Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
Sampling bias so important sub categories excluded, so becomes less effective
107
What are the Disadvantages of Volunteer (Self-Selected Samples) as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?
If advert is used, it will become biased
108
What Factors must be taken into account when Considering Sample Size?
* Size of target population
* The larger the sample the less likely bias is to occur as the effects of participant variables are weakened
* Larger samples are time consuming in terms of data collection + analysis
109
What are the Strengths of Case Studies?
* They allow us to investigate people w/ a unique characteristic or experience
* Use a variety of methods to get info, then triangulate the data to draw conclusions - allowing us to check the validity of research
* Qualitative evidence, so allows an in-depth analysis of the group being studied
* Conclusions will be highly valid for the sample being studied as the focus is on real life
110
What are the Limitations of Case Studies?
* Validity reduces if participants don’t recall info correctly
* Case studies are difficult to replicate = low reliability
* Researcher interpret data in a subjective manner - reducing validity as the findings will reflect more what the researcher was hoping
* Studies are unique + it’s doubtful whether results gained can be generalised
* Case studies can’t be used to establish cause + effect links as the lack of control over variables that have influenced behaviour
* Unethical - often involve driving into personal lives of participants = invasion of privacy
111
What is a Case Study?
An in-depth investigation, gathering highly detailed info of a single individual or small group
112
What are the Different Sources that a psychologist uses when compiling a Case Study?
* Interviews w/ the participant
* School+ medical records
* Attitude questionnaires
* Employment records
* Interview w/ teachers/managers/colleagues/parents/family members
* Psychometric tests
* Physiological measures
* Observations of participant
* Results of experimental tasks carried out by participant
* Tests of clinical symptoms
* Diaries, letters, etc
113
What are Demand Characteristics?
Cues participant receives that indicates purpose of research
114
What are Experimenter Effects?
Participants change behaviour due to cues given by experimenter - influences outcome of experiment
115
What is Single Blind?
Experimenter knows the test (participant doesn’t know the test or aim of study)
116
What is Double Blind?
Neither the experimenter or participant knows the test or aim of the study
117
What is Control Condition?
Condition that gives researcher a baseline for comparison so any effects on the DV of the IV can be seen
118
What is Counterbalancing?
Half participants perform condition A and then B, the other half do B than A - can be randomised
119
What are the Experimental Designs?
* Independent groups
* Repeated measures
* Matched pairs
120
What are Independent Groups as a Experimental Design?
Using different participants in each condition
121
What are Repeated Measures as a Experimental Design?
Using same participants in each condition
122
What are Matched Pairs as a Experimental Design?
Using different participants in each condition - making sure they’re same on important variables
123
What are the Advantages of Independent Groups as a Experimental Design?
* Order effects - fatigue/boredom isn’t a problem
| * Demand characteristics isn’t a problem - participant has fewer cues + less likely to guess the aim
124
What are the Disadvantages of Independent Groups as a Experimental Design?
* More participants required than for a repeated measure
| * Participant variables affect results - participants in 1 condition were bad at the test or good
125
What are the Advantages of Repeated Measures as a Experimental Design?
* Fewer participants required
| * Participant variables kept constant between conditions
126
What are the Disadvantages of Repeated Measures as a Experimental Design?
•Order effects - fatigue/boredom confound results when one condition is done after another
127
What are the Advantages of Matched Pairs as a Experimental Design?
* Participant variables controlled
* Order effects not present
* Demand characteristics controlled
* Same test used in both conditions
128
What are the Disadvantages of Matched Pairs as a Experimental Design?
* More participants required
* Matching participants is very difficult
* Process may be bias by experimenter effects
129
How do you Control the Extraneous Variables in Independent Groups as a Experimental Design?
Random allocation of participants to groups
130
How do you Control the Extraneous Variables in Repeated Measures as a Experimental Design?
* Demand characteristics controlled by deception
| * Order effects controlled by time lapse + counter balancing
131
How do you Control the Extraneous Variables in Matched Pairs as a Experimental Design?
Using standardised test to match participants on relevant variables
132
What are the Extraneous Variables in Independent Groups as a Experimental Design?
Participant variables - extraneous variables due to different individual characteristics
133
What are the Extraneous Variables in Repeated Measures as a Experimental Design?
* Demand characteristics - e.g. cues participants pick up on
| * Order effects - e.g. practice, boredom, fatigue
134
What are the Extraneous Variables in Matched Pairs as a Experimental Design?
Experimenter effects - matching the participants may be biased
135
What is the Control Condition?
The condition that gives the researcher a baseline for comparison so that any effects on the DV of experimental condition of the IV can be clearly seen
136
What is the Experimental Condition?
The condition where the participants experience the main condition of the IV
137
What is the main Aim of an Experiment?
Try to identify cause + effect links between IV and DV
138
What is a Field Experiment?
* Researcher deliberately manipulates independent variable
* In natural environment of participant
* Control of extraneous variables whenever possible
139
What is a Lab Experiment?
* Conducted in controlled setting
* Allows researcher to deliberately manipulate independent variable
* Maintains control over extraneous variables
140
What are the main Characteristics of the Experimental Method?
* Researchers manipulate/alter IV
* Researchers measure (using quantitative data) whether there’s an effect on DV
* Many extraneous variables as possible are controlled, don’t have confounding effect on DV
141
How would Demand Characteristics Threaten the Validity of an Experiment?
In lab experiments - participants know they’re being studied so they may alter how they act = low validity
142
How would you Deal with the Threat from Demand Characteristics on the Validity of an Experiment?
* Double blind
| * Deception
143
How would Experimenter Effects Threaten the Validity of an Experiment?
Influence performance of participants = reduced validity
144
How would Lack of Control of Situational Extraneous Variables Threaten the Validity of an Experiment?
Internal validity reduces in field experiments as results caused by not the IV
145
How would Participants Know They’re Being Studied Threaten the Validity of an Experiment?
Participants alter behaviour = low validity
146
How would you Deal with the Threat from Experimenter Effects on the Validity of an Experiment?
Double blind
147
How would you Deal with the Threat from Lack of Control of Situational Extraneous Variables on the Validity of an Experiment?
Standardisation
148
How would you Deal with the Threat from Participants Know they’re Being Studied on the Validity of an Experiment?
Single blind
149
What is Internal Validity?
Extent to which the test or measure used of human behaviour accurately measures what it is supposed to
150
What is the Internal Validity Concerned with in Experiments?
* Whether the IV actually did produce the changes seen in the DV
* If confounding variables have affected the results then validity is lowered
* The extent you which the operationalisation of the DV actually measures
151
What are the Strengths of Field Experiments?
* Greater ecological validity - as behaviour is studied in its natural setting relating to real life
* Allow the systematic collection of objective quantitative data to test hypotheses
* Lower demand characteristics as participants may not know they’re being studied
152
What are the Weaknesses of Field Experiments?
* More difficult to replicate - so difficult to show reliable results
* Harder to control all aspects of the experiment - including the manipulation of the IV, precise measurement of the DV + extraneous variables
* Experimenter effects can occur - as more difficult to control variables coming from the experimenter that influence performance
* If participants don’t know they’re being studied then ethical issues are raised - e.g. lack of informed consent, deception, invasion of privacy, no right to withdraw
153
What is the Experiment by Piliavin et al (1969) as an Example of a Field Experiment?
* In New York subway system
* Investigate factors influencing helping behaviour of the people on the train when a ‘victim’ suddenly collapsed
* Participants didn’t know they were being studied
* The IV of ‘the nature of victim’ was manipulated to observe what effect it had on the DV ‘the helping behaviours of the participants’
154
What are the Types of Experiments?
* Lab experiments
| * Field experiments
155
What are the Strengths of Lab Experiments?
* Standardisation of instructions, procedures + settings = higher reliability as can easily replicate
* A lot of control over extraneous variables - so, researcher can study the causes of behaviour of Ps in an objective way - so, cause + effect links can be established
* Scientific research method allowing the systematic, controlled collection of objective quantitative data to test hypotheses
156
What are the Weaknesses of Lab Experiments?
* Raise ethical problems - e.g. deception, informed consent •Results likely to be affected by demand characterises as participants know they’re being studied
* High experimenter effects as researcher is present = may influence performance of Ps
* Artificial settings + tasks = artificial behaviour in Ps = lack ecological validity + difficult to generalise as setting + tasks often not real life
157
What is the Experiment by Loftus + Palmer (1974) as an Example of a Lab Experiment?
* Investigate the accuracy of eyewitness testimony + whether leasing questions would alter a witness’s memory
* Ps were shown clips of traffic accidents + questioned about them
* Iv was ‘the nature of the question asked’ + was manipulated to see what effect it had on the DV ‘the answers the participants gave’
158
What are the 6 main Phases in Thematic Analysis?
* Familiarisation
* Coding
* Searching for themes
* Reviewing themes
* Defining + naming themes
* Writing up
159
What are Leading Questions?
Questions where the ‘correct’ answer is prompted or encouraged by the way it’s worded
160
Why are Leading Questions a Problem in Interviews?
Lower validity of research - answers aren’t accurate - don’t reflect a participants real attitudes or feelings
161
What are the Advantages of Structured Interviews?
* Produce quantitative data - so easy to analyse
| * Easy tp replicate - reliability is high
162
What are the Advantages of Unstructured Interviews?
Produce qualitative data - rich + detailed - validity can be high
163
What are the Advantages of Semi-Structured Interviews?
Produce qualitative and quantitative data - validity + reliability is high
164
What are the Disadvantages of Structured Interviews?
Detail + meaning may be lost:
•Reducing complex attitudes + feelings to a series of numbers
•Reductionism
•Reduce validity
165
What are the Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews?
* Questions aren’t standardised - hard to replicate + lack reliability
* Qualitative data - so, difficult to analyse
166
What are the Disadvantages of Semi-Structured Interviews?
* Qualitative data - so, hard to analyse
| * Quantitative data - detail may be lost - reduces validity
167
What are the Different Types of Interviews?
* Structured interviews
* Unstructured interviews
* Semi structured interviews
168
What are Structured Interviews?
* Have predetermined questions given in a set order
* Standardised questions
* Produces quantitative data as the questions are closed
169
What are Unstructured Interviews?
* Questions aren’t in a set format
* Normally in a informal atmosphere + non-directive
* Allows wider exploration of the original subject matter
* Many questions will be open ended + qualitative data tends to be produced
170
What are Semi Structured Interviews?
* Set questions but the interviewer has more chance to explore the answers further
* Produce quantitative and qualitative data
171
What are Closed Questions?
* Give participant a limited range of answers to choose from
* Fixed response questions
172
What are Open Questions?
* Allow respondents to express themselves freely in their own words + without constraints
* Gives rich information
173
What is the Reliability in Questionnaires?
Standardised procedures used - so, high in reliability
174
What is the Validity in Questionnaires?
* Use closed questions - limits validity
* If socially desirable answers given - lack validity
* Misunderstand question - reduce validity
175
What is the Objectivity/Subjectivity in Questionnaires?
Set questions - so, researchers don’t have a say, so can’t influence = objectivity
176
What is the Reliability in Interviews?
* Quantitative data - easy to replicate - reliability is high
* Unstructured - questions aren’t standardised - lack reliability
177
What is the Validity in Interviews?
* Qualitative data - rich + detailed - validity can be high
* Quantitative data - detail may be lost - reduces validity
178
What is the Objectivity/Subjectivity in Interviews?
Qualitative data - researchers can be influenced by personal feelings = subjectivity
179
What is Thematic Analysis?
Technique used for the analysis of qualitative data - identifying + assessing patterns in qualitative data allowing conclusions to be drawn
180
What are the Strengths of Thematic Analysis?
* Qualitative data can be turned into quantitative data
* High validity as the data is qualitative + the main meanings in the data are preserved
* Rich + qualitative data - providing ‘an intimate window onto the life worlds of people’ according to Braun + Clarke (2006)
* Process of identifying codes + themes means that the researcher must derive themes from the data instead of imposing their own ideas = data is valid
181
What are the Weaknesses of Thematic Analysis?
* Time consuming - it’s hard to identify themes that fully represent the data + answer the research question
* Reliability of results are undermined as different researchers may look at the same data + identify different themes
* The themes identified end up coming from the researcher rather than the data - this is a form of researcher effect + undermines the validity of the conclusion reached
182
What does Establishing Rapport mean in an Interview?
* The interviewer should build a sympathetic + friendly relationship w/ interviewee
* The interviewee should find the interviewer trustworthy + should feel comfortable w/ answering the questions
* So, the responses are more open + honest = higher validity
183
What is a Factor that Increases Reliability of Questionnaires?
Test-retest method
184
What is a Factor that Decreases Reliability of Questionnaires?
Administered differently by different members of the research team
185
What is a Factor that Increases Validity of Questionnaires?
Researcher doesn’t need to be present - answers are more ‘real’ and truthful
186
What is a Factor that Decreases Validity of Questionnaires?
Often closed questions - participants have no opportunity to express themselves
187
What is the Ethical Issue Raised by Questionnaires?
Deception:
•To control demand characteristics
•Use of filler questions to distract participants from main research aim
188
What are the Strengths of Open Questions?
Rich information - more complex account of what people think or feel
189
What are the Strengths of Closed Questions?
Easy to analyse - so, objective statistical comparisons can be made
190
What are the Weaknesses of Open Questions?
* Difficult to identify trends in data
| * Answers may be long + rambling
191
What are the Weaknesses of Closed Questions?
* Lower validity as participants answer might not fall into a category
* Can oversimplify human behaviour by reducing complex feelings/attitudes to a set of numbers
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What is a Socially Desirable Answer?
Respondents give an answer that reflects what they think they ‘ought’ to say to present themselves in a positive light
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Why are Socially Desirable Answers a Problem in Self-Report Methods of Research?
Response bias - lowers validity
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What is a Ranked Scale Item/Question on a Questionnaire?
Participants give a number to represent their views - quantitative
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What are the Strengths of Questionnaires?
* High reliability - standardised procedures used + questionnaires easy to replicate
* Standardised procedures act as controls of extraneous variables - so, answers given shouldn’t be affected by anything
* Researcher doesn’t need to be present to administer the questionnaire - so, answers are more truthful + real as Ps comfortable
* Allow researcher to gain access to what people actually think + feel about a topic
* A lot of data collected in a cheap+ quick way
* When closed questions used - quantitative data is easy to analyse
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What are the Weaknesses of Questionnaires?
* Ps may misunderstand questions which limits validity
* Often closed questions which limits the validity as Ps have no opportunity to express their views
* Demand characteristics is a problem which lacks validity as they may give socially desirable answers - so, should put in filler questions to distract Ps, but this is deception
* Questionnaires could be administered differently by different members of the research team - reducing the reliability
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What are Examples of the Types of Closed Questions?
* Categories of response
* Identifying categories
* Likert scale
* Ranked scale item
* Semantic differential scales
* Questions for children
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What is a Likert Scale?
Allows people to show how much they agree or disagree w/ a statement
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What is a Ranked Scale Item?
Participants asked to give a number to represent their view
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How do you Write an Appropriate Questionnaire?
* Clarity - questions should be clear + concise
| * Avoid bias - questions should be objective + value free
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What are the Principles of Questionnaire Design?
* Fit for purpose
* Filler questions
* Sequence of questions
* Standardised procedures
* Pilot studies
* Ethical issues
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What are Filler Questions as a Principle of Questionnaire Design?
Irrelevant questions to hide or distract from the main purpose of the questionnaire which will help reduce demand characteristics
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What is Sequence of Questions as a Principle of Questionnaire Design?
Begin questionnaire with easy questions saving the more sensitive questions until towards the end
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What is Fit for Purpose as a Principle of Questionnaire Design?
Questionnaire should be to the point in asking few questions as possible to ensure that respondents do not lose patience
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What are Questionnaires?
Self-report data collection method consisting of carefully structured questions given to participants in the standardised manner
