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Peach Pack Flashcards

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1
Q

What does a Ratio do?

A

It is a way to compare quantities

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2
Q

Why are Estimates very useful for psychologists?

A

They help the researcher understand the data in very large data sets

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3
Q

What are Significant Figures?

A

A method of finding an approximated or estimated answer to a calculation is to round of using significant figures

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4
Q

When is Standard Form useful?

A

When writing very big or very small numbers

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5
Q

What are Descriptive Statistics?

A
  • Used to describe the main trends in data
  • Used to summarise the raw data from research into a more meaningful form to help researchers draw conclusions from the results
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6
Q

What does Descriptive Statistics include?

A
  • Measures of central tendency - mean, median, mode
  • Measures of dispersion - range, standard deviation
  • Graphical representations of data - bar charts, pie chart, scatter graphs, histograms and frequency distribution
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7
Q

What are the 3 Main Types of Central Tendency?

A
  • Mean
  • Median
  • Mode
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8
Q

What is a Measure of Central Tendency?

A

The value in a group of values which is the most typical for the data set

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9
Q

What is the Strength of the Mean?

A

All information in a set of data is used so it is the most powerful measure of central tendency and is likely to be representative of the data

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10
Q

What is are the Weaknesses of the Mean?

A
  • It is sensitive, so distorted when an extreme school is present - so it is no longer representative of the set of data
  • Not meaningful when used with certain types of data - mean can’t be found when data is in mutually exclusive categories
  • It doesn’t reflect real-life
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11
Q

What is the Strength of the Median?

A

Not distorted by an extreme scores, so provides a more representative value for the data set

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12
Q

What are the Weaknesses of the Median?

A
  • Doesn’t take account of the exact value of each item, so it’s less sensitive to the value of each piece of data
  • Less meaningful with very small sets of data
  • Not meaningful when used with certain types of data - e.g. data in the form of frequency counts in mutually exclusive categories
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13
Q

What is the Strength of the Mode?

A
  • Most useful with data in the form of frequency counts in mutually exclusive categories - it tells us what the most frequently occurring score or category is
  • Not influenced by extreme scores in skewed data
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14
Q

What are the Weaknesses of the Mode?

A
  • Not useful when a set of data has many modes
  • If there are only a few scores, then even small changes in the data can radically alter the mode
  • Doesn’t give a proper representation of the dataset as it isn’t sensitive
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15
Q

What are Measures of Dispersion?

A

Measure of whether our scores are clustered closely around the mean or are scattered widely

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16
Q

How do Measures of Dispersion help us?

A

Help us to see whether scores are similar or very different from each other which can be useful when comparing two sets of data

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17
Q

What is the Strength of the Range?

A

•Quick and easy to calculate

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18
Q

What are the Weaknesses of the Range?

A
  • Becomes less effective measure of dispersion when being used with skewed data as it is distorted by extreme scores
  • Gives very little information about the spread of data
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19
Q

What are the different Measures of Dispersion?

A
  • The range

* Standard deviation

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20
Q

What is Standard Deviation?

A

Gives a measure of how much on average each of the scores in the dataset deviates from the mean

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21
Q

What are the Strengths of Standard Deviation?

A
  • Most sensitive + powerful measure of dispersion and is likely to be representative of the data, so shows accurately whether a set of data is tightly clustered around the mean or very spread out
  • Less distorted by skewed data than the range so can be preferable
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22
Q

When drawing and interpreting graphs, what must you take into account?

A
  • Axes need to be clearly labelled + the graph needs an informative title
  • Care needs to be taken in the scale chosen What is Standard Deviation?
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23
Q

What do Tables, Graphs and Charts do?

A

They provide visual summaries which can show any major patterns or trends in the data

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24
Q

What does a Group Frequency Table Help?

A
  • It helps to display and give an overview of the data

* The smaller the group width, the more accurate the analysis will be

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25
Q

What do Frequency Diagrams show?

A

The frequencies for different groups

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26
Q

What are Bar Charts useful for?

A

Comparing data that falls into categories

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27
Q

What are Pie Charts?

A

A way of summarising a set of categorical data or displaying proportions

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28
Q

What are Scatter Diagrams used for?

A

Used to a relationship between two variables

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29
Q

What does the Resulting a Pattern in a Scatter Diagrams indícate?

A

The type and strength of the correlation between two variables

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30
Q

What are Histograms used for?

A

To summarise data that are measured on an interval scale

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31
Q

What does the term Distribution refer to?

A

The way data from a test, task or measurement is spread out or distributed

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32
Q

What does the term Distribution tell you?

A

Whether data is gathered towards:
•Lower end of the set of scores or measures = positively skewed distribution
•Higher end of dataset = negatively skewed
•Towards the middle = normal distribution

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33
Q

What is a Normal Distribution?

A
  • Produces a bell shaped curve that is perfectly symmetrical about the mean
  • Mean, median + mode are equal - so they’re all in the middle
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34
Q

What is a Positively Skewed Distribution?

A
  • When mode < median < mean the data is positively skewed
  • Scores or measures are mainly towards the lower end of the distribution but there’s a score that is very high
  • Mean is pulled upwards towards high score
  • Median stays in middle of distribution as it isn’t influenced by extreme scores
  • Mode will be at peak of curve as it’s most frequently occurring
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35
Q

What is a Negatively Skewed Distribution?

A
  • When mean < median < mode the data is negatively skewed
  • Scores or measures are mainly towards the higher end of the distribution but there’s a score that is very low
  • Mean is pulled downwards towards this low score
  • Median stays in middle of distribution as it isn’t influenced by extreme scores
  • Mode will be at peak of curve as it’s most frequently occurring
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36
Q

What is the Scientific Method?

A
  • Behaviour is noticed
  • Theories developed to explain this behaviour
  • Hypotheses or research questions written
  • Studies + procedures are designed to test these predictions
  • Systematic + controlled data collection takes place
  • Analysis + interpretation of data collected, reaching conclusions
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37
Q

What are the Techniques for Collecting/Analysing Data?

A
  • Experiments
  • Self-report methods
  • Observations
  • Correlations
  • Case studies
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38
Q

What is a Variable?

A

Anything that varies

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39
Q

In an Experiment, what is the researcher looking for?

A

A difference between 2 conditions

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40
Q

In a Correlation , what is the researcher looking for?

A

A link between 2 variables

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41
Q

In a Correlation , what do we wish to measure?

A

The nature of the association between 2 variables - these are known as co-variables

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42
Q

In an Experiment , what do we wish to measure?

A

The effect of one variable on another

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43
Q

What does the use of Experiments allow researchers to Establish?

A

Cause and effect links between 2 variables

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44
Q

In an Experiment, what is the Independent Variable?

A

The variable which is manipulated by the experimenter - the thing you change

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45
Q

In an Experiment, what is the Dependent Variable?

A

The outcome which is measured by the experimenter

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46
Q

What is an Alternate Hypothesis?

A

A prediction in the form of a testable statement

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47
Q

In a Correlation, what are Co-Variables?

A

The 2 variables in a correlation that vary (change) in association with one another

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48
Q

What does it mean if you Operationalise a Variable?

A

Say in precise terms how we will measure it or manipulate it

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49
Q

What is Validity?

A

Extent to which a study has measured what it claims to measure

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50
Q

What does it mean if you Operationalise an Experiment?

A

Say how we will manipulate the independent variable into its 2 conditions and how we will measure the dependent variable

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51
Q

What are examples of how you can collect data on how to measure variables in a correlational study?

A
  • Give participants a test under controlled conditions
  • Ask participants to self rate themselves
  • Gather data on participants from data bases
  • Observe participants a questionnaires that results in quantitative data
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52
Q

What are Extraneous Variables in an Experiment?

A

Any variable that might have an effect on the dependant variable (apart from the IV)

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53
Q

Why must Extraneous Variables be Controlled?

A

Otherwise they could become confounding variables

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54
Q

What are Confounding Variables?

A

Uncontrolled extraneous variables that have had an effect on results

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55
Q

What is a difference between an extraneous variable and a confounding variable?

A
  • Extraneous variables have effects on the DV

* Confounding variables have had an effect on the results

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56
Q

What is Reliability?

A

The extent to which a research finding is produced consistently over a number of investigations

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57
Q

What happens if confounding variables interferes with the variables that we are studying?

A

The reliability of the research is reduced as it can be difficult to replicate the research

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58
Q

How are Confounding Variables a threat to the Validity?

A
  • They can influence how accurately we can measure the DV

* So, our results have been confounded because we won’t be sure which variables have caused the effects we have observed

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59
Q

What are Situational Variables?

A

Variables in the research situation itself can have an effect on the dependent variable

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60
Q

What Method can you use to Control Situational Variables?

A

Standardisation

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61
Q

What is Standardisation?

A

The materials used usually have to be exactly the same for all participants so they experience the same conditions

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62
Q

What are Pilot Studies?

A

A smaller version of the actual study, allowing identification of problems + modification of materials

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63
Q

What are Sources of Extraneous Variables in Research?

A
  • Situational variables
  • Participant variables
  • Order effects
  • Demand characteristics
  • Researcher effects
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64
Q

What are Participant Variables?

A

Variables from the individual participants which can have an effect on their performance

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65
Q

What are Examples of Participant Variables?

A
  • Poor memory

* High levels of intelligence

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66
Q

What is the Method used to Control Participant Variables?

A

Random allocation of participants (randomisation) - differences between individual participants are balanced out across the conditions

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67
Q

What are Order Effects?

A

The order in which participants carry out tasks in a study will have an effect on the outcome

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68
Q

What is an Example of Order Effects?

A

Performance may improve on a test of memory due to practice

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69
Q

When do Order Effects occur in research?

A

When the same group of participants are required to carry out a task twice

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70
Q

What Method is used to Control Order Effects?

A

Counterbalancing - half participants complete tasks in 1 order, the other half complete tasks in opposite order

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71
Q

What are Demand Characteristics?

A

All of the cues that participants might receive that indicate the purpose of all research

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72
Q

What is an Example of Demand Characteristics?

A

Instructions in an experiment or wording of questions in the questionnaire - participants may unconsciously change their behaviour as a result of these queues

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73
Q

What Method is used to Control Demand Characteristics?

A

Low levels of deception are used to throw participants off - key questions in the questionnaire put amongst other unimportant questions as a disguise

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74
Q

What are Researcher Effects?

A

If researcher knows aims of the study + an expected outcome, then they may struggle to remain objective + influence the results to reflect their expectations

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75
Q

What are Examples of Researcher Effects?

A
  • Mis-recording results
  • Influencing behaviour of participants by non-verbal or verbal communication
  • Failing to follow standardised procedures accurately
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76
Q

What is a Method used to Control Researcher Effects?

A

Standardised procedures - everything that happens in research is set down like instructions that researchers must follow

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77
Q

What is an Example of Situational Variables?

A

Difference in conditions when participants are tested may influence the outcome - unexpected noise during a test could affect their performance + researchers may treat some differently

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78
Q

What is the Alternate Hypothesis?

A

A prediction in the form of a testable statement

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79
Q

What is an Experimental Hypothesis?

A

Predicts a cause + effect relationship between the IV and DV

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80
Q

What is a Directional Hypothesis (one-tailed hypothesis) and give an example?

A
  • Predicts what direction the difference or correlation will be
  • E.g. there will be a significant positive/negative difference between…
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81
Q

What is a Non-Directional Hypothesis (two-tailed hypothesis) and give an example?

A
  • Predicts that there will be a difference or correlation allowing an outcome in either direction
  • E.g. there will be a significant difference between
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82
Q

What is the Null Hypothesis?

A
  • Predicts results will be due to chance

* Always non-directional (2-tailed)

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83
Q

What is a Correlational Hypothesis?

A

Predicts an association between 2 co-variables

84
Q

What is an Example of a Correlational Null Hypothesis?

A
  • There will be more significant correlations between variable 1 and 2
  • Any correlation between variable 1 and 2 will be due to chance
85
Q

What is an Example of a Experimental Null Hypothesis?

A
  • There will be no significant difference in the DV between IV1 and IV2
  • Any difference in DV between IV1 and IV2 will be due to chance
86
Q

What does the word Significant mean in a Hypothesis?

A

Results are statistically meaningful, not due to chance

87
Q

Why would a researcher Accept their Alternate Hypothesis?

A

If the results are significant

88
Q

Why would a researcher Accept their Null Hypothesis?

A

If the results are not significant

89
Q

What is the Target Population?

A

The particular group are interested in studying from which we draw sample

90
Q

What is a Representative Sample?

A

A group of participants drawn from the target population that is typical of that target population

91
Q

What is a Representative Sample important?

A

Because it allows us to generalise from our results to the rest of the target population

92
Q

When does Sampling Bias exist?

A

When a sample becomes weighted because of the over-representation of group of people - so it’s no longer appropriate to generalise from this sample

93
Q

What is a possible Source of Sampling Bias?

A

From the use of volunteers in the investigation

94
Q

What are the Sampling Techniques?

A
  • Random sample

* Non random sampling technique

95
Q

What is a Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A

A sample in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

96
Q

What are Methods of selecting a Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A
  • Manual selection (lottery method)

* Random number generators

97
Q

What is the Advantage of Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A
  • In large samples, it provides the best chance of an unbiased representative sample
  • As everyone has an opportunity of being chosen
98
Q

What is the Disadvantage of Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A
  • Very easy to end up with a biased sample by chance
  • Gathering names can become difficult due to legal restrictions - e.g. the data protection act (1998) may limit collecting a random sample
99
Q

What are Opportunity Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A

Involves the researcher selecting various participants that are available to them at the time of the study

100
Q

What are Volunteer (Self-Selected Samples) as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A

Participants consciously decided to become involved - they volunteer

101
Q

What are Stratified Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A

Dividing the target population into important into important strata or sub categories

102
Q

What are the Advantages of Opportunity Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A
  • Quick
  • Convenient
  • Efficient
  • Cheaper
103
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Opportunity Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A

Unrepresentative sample as it’s biased - might choose people who look more helpful, etc

104
Q

What are the Advantages of Volunteer (Self-Selected Samples) as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A
  • Very ethical
  • Easy
  • Convenient
105
Q

What are the Advantages of Stratified Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A
  • Sample will be fairly representative of that population

* Credible conclusions can be drawn

106
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Stratified Samples as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A

Sampling bias so important sub categories excluded, so becomes less effective

107
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Volunteer (Self-Selected Samples) as a Non-Random Sample as a Sampling Technique?

A

If advert is used, it will become biased

108
Q

What Factors must be taken into account when Considering Sample Size?

A
  • Size of target population
  • The larger the sample the less likely bias is to occur as the effects of participant variables are weakened
  • Larger samples are time consuming in terms of data collection + analysis
109
Q

What are the Strengths of Case Studies?

A
  • They allow us to investigate people w/ a unique characteristic or experience
  • Use a variety of methods to get info, then triangulate the data to draw conclusions - allowing us to check the validity of research
  • Qualitative evidence, so allows an in-depth analysis of the group being studied
  • Conclusions will be highly valid for the sample being studied as the focus is on real life
110
Q

What are the Limitations of Case Studies?

A
  • Validity reduces if participants don’t recall info correctly
  • Case studies are difficult to replicate = low reliability
  • Researcher interpret data in a subjective manner - reducing validity as the findings will reflect more what the researcher was hoping
  • Studies are unique + it’s doubtful whether results gained can be generalised
  • Case studies can’t be used to establish cause + effect links as the lack of control over variables that have influenced behaviour
  • Unethical - often involve driving into personal lives of participants = invasion of privacy
111
Q

What is a Case Study?

A

An in-depth investigation, gathering highly detailed info of a single individual or small group

112
Q

What are the Different Sources that a psychologist uses when compiling a Case Study?

A
  • Interviews w/ the participant
  • School+ medical records
  • Attitude questionnaires
  • Employment records
  • Interview w/ teachers/managers/colleagues/parents/family members
  • Psychometric tests
  • Physiological measures
  • Observations of participant
  • Results of experimental tasks carried out by participant
  • Tests of clinical symptoms
  • Diaries, letters, etc
113
Q

What are Demand Characteristics?

A

Cues participant receives that indicates purpose of research

114
Q

What are Experimenter Effects?

A

Participants change behaviour due to cues given by experimenter - influences outcome of experiment

115
Q

What is Single Blind?

A

Experimenter knows the test (participant doesn’t know the test or aim of study)

116
Q

What is Double Blind?

A

Neither the experimenter or participant knows the test or aim of the study

117
Q

What is Control Condition?

A

Condition that gives researcher a baseline for comparison so any effects on the DV of the IV can be seen

118
Q

What is Counterbalancing?

A

Half participants perform condition A and then B, the other half do B than A - can be randomised

119
Q

What are the Experimental Designs?

A
  • Independent groups
  • Repeated measures
  • Matched pairs
120
Q

What are Independent Groups as a Experimental Design?

A

Using different participants in each condition

121
Q

What are Repeated Measures as a Experimental Design?

A

Using same participants in each condition

122
Q

What are Matched Pairs as a Experimental Design?

A

Using different participants in each condition - making sure they’re same on important variables

123
Q

What are the Advantages of Independent Groups as a Experimental Design?

A
  • Order effects - fatigue/boredom isn’t a problem

* Demand characteristics isn’t a problem - participant has fewer cues + less likely to guess the aim

124
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Independent Groups as a Experimental Design?

A
  • More participants required than for a repeated measure

* Participant variables affect results - participants in 1 condition were bad at the test or good

125
Q

What are the Advantages of Repeated Measures as a Experimental Design?

A
  • Fewer participants required

* Participant variables kept constant between conditions

126
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Repeated Measures as a Experimental Design?

A

•Order effects - fatigue/boredom confound results when one condition is done after another

127
Q

What are the Advantages of Matched Pairs as a Experimental Design?

A
  • Participant variables controlled
  • Order effects not present
  • Demand characteristics controlled
  • Same test used in both conditions
128
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Matched Pairs as a Experimental Design?

A
  • More participants required
  • Matching participants is very difficult
  • Process may be bias by experimenter effects
129
Q

How do you Control the Extraneous Variables in Independent Groups as a Experimental Design?

A

Random allocation of participants to groups

130
Q

How do you Control the Extraneous Variables in Repeated Measures as a Experimental Design?

A
  • Demand characteristics controlled by deception

* Order effects controlled by time lapse + counter balancing

131
Q

How do you Control the Extraneous Variables in Matched Pairs as a Experimental Design?

A

Using standardised test to match participants on relevant variables

132
Q

What are the Extraneous Variables in Independent Groups as a Experimental Design?

A

Participant variables - extraneous variables due to different individual characteristics

133
Q

What are the Extraneous Variables in Repeated Measures as a Experimental Design?

A
  • Demand characteristics - e.g. cues participants pick up on

* Order effects - e.g. practice, boredom, fatigue

134
Q

What are the Extraneous Variables in Matched Pairs as a Experimental Design?

A

Experimenter effects - matching the participants may be biased

135
Q

What is the Control Condition?

A

The condition that gives the researcher a baseline for comparison so that any effects on the DV of experimental condition of the IV can be clearly seen

136
Q

What is the Experimental Condition?

A

The condition where the participants experience the main condition of the IV

137
Q

What is the main Aim of an Experiment?

A

Try to identify cause + effect links between IV and DV

138
Q

What is a Field Experiment?

A
  • Researcher deliberately manipulates independent variable
  • In natural environment of participant
  • Control of extraneous variables whenever possible
139
Q

What is a Lab Experiment?

A
  • Conducted in controlled setting
  • Allows researcher to deliberately manipulate independent variable
  • Maintains control over extraneous variables
140
Q

What are the main Characteristics of the Experimental Method?

A
  • Researchers manipulate/alter IV
  • Researchers measure (using quantitative data) whether there’s an effect on DV
  • Many extraneous variables as possible are controlled, don’t have confounding effect on DV
141
Q

How would Demand Characteristics Threaten the Validity of an Experiment?

A

In lab experiments - participants know they’re being studied so they may alter how they act = low validity

142
Q

How would you Deal with the Threat from Demand Characteristics on the Validity of an Experiment?

A
  • Double blind

* Deception

143
Q

How would Experimenter Effects Threaten the Validity of an Experiment?

A

Influence performance of participants = reduced validity

144
Q

How would Lack of Control of Situational Extraneous Variables Threaten the Validity of an Experiment?

A

Internal validity reduces in field experiments as results caused by not the IV

145
Q

How would Participants Know They’re Being Studied Threaten the Validity of an Experiment?

A

Participants alter behaviour = low validity

146
Q

How would you Deal with the Threat from Experimenter Effects on the Validity of an Experiment?

A

Double blind

147
Q

How would you Deal with the Threat from Lack of Control of Situational Extraneous Variables on the Validity of an Experiment?

A

Standardisation

148
Q

How would you Deal with the Threat from Participants Know they’re Being Studied on the Validity of an Experiment?

A

Single blind

149
Q

What is Internal Validity?

A

Extent to which the test or measure used of human behaviour accurately measures what it is supposed to

150
Q

What is the Internal Validity Concerned with in Experiments?

A
  • Whether the IV actually did produce the changes seen in the DV
  • If confounding variables have affected the results then validity is lowered
  • The extent you which the operationalisation of the DV actually measures
151
Q

What are the Strengths of Field Experiments?

A
  • Greater ecological validity - as behaviour is studied in its natural setting relating to real life
  • Allow the systematic collection of objective quantitative data to test hypotheses
  • Lower demand characteristics as participants may not know they’re being studied
152
Q

What are the Weaknesses of Field Experiments?

A
  • More difficult to replicate - so difficult to show reliable results
  • Harder to control all aspects of the experiment - including the manipulation of the IV, precise measurement of the DV + extraneous variables
  • Experimenter effects can occur - as more difficult to control variables coming from the experimenter that influence performance
  • If participants don’t know they’re being studied then ethical issues are raised - e.g. lack of informed consent, deception, invasion of privacy, no right to withdraw
153
Q

What is the Experiment by Piliavin et al (1969) as an Example of a Field Experiment?

A
  • In New York subway system
  • Investigate factors influencing helping behaviour of the people on the train when a ‘victim’ suddenly collapsed
  • Participants didn’t know they were being studied
  • The IV of ‘the nature of victim’ was manipulated to observe what effect it had on the DV ‘the helping behaviours of the participants’
154
Q

What are the Types of Experiments?

A
  • Lab experiments

* Field experiments

155
Q

What are the Strengths of Lab Experiments?

A
  • Standardisation of instructions, procedures + settings = higher reliability as can easily replicate
  • A lot of control over extraneous variables - so, researcher can study the causes of behaviour of Ps in an objective way - so, cause + effect links can be established
  • Scientific research method allowing the systematic, controlled collection of objective quantitative data to test hypotheses
156
Q

What are the Weaknesses of Lab Experiments?

A
  • Raise ethical problems - e.g. deception, informed consent •Results likely to be affected by demand characterises as participants know they’re being studied
  • High experimenter effects as researcher is present = may influence performance of Ps
  • Artificial settings + tasks = artificial behaviour in Ps = lack ecological validity + difficult to generalise as setting + tasks often not real life
157
Q

What is the Experiment by Loftus + Palmer (1974) as an Example of a Lab Experiment?

A
  • Investigate the accuracy of eyewitness testimony + whether leasing questions would alter a witness’s memory
  • Ps were shown clips of traffic accidents + questioned about them
  • Iv was ‘the nature of the question asked’ + was manipulated to see what effect it had on the DV ‘the answers the participants gave’
158
Q

What are the 6 main Phases in Thematic Analysis?

A
  • Familiarisation
  • Coding
  • Searching for themes
  • Reviewing themes
  • Defining + naming themes
  • Writing up
159
Q

What are Leading Questions?

A

Questions where the ‘correct’ answer is prompted or encouraged by the way it’s worded

160
Q

Why are Leading Questions a Problem in Interviews?

A

Lower validity of research - answers aren’t accurate - don’t reflect a participants real attitudes or feelings

161
Q

What are the Advantages of Structured Interviews?

A
  • Produce quantitative data - so easy to analyse

* Easy tp replicate - reliability is high

162
Q

What are the Advantages of Unstructured Interviews?

A

Produce qualitative data - rich + detailed - validity can be high

163
Q

What are the Advantages of Semi-Structured Interviews?

A

Produce qualitative and quantitative data - validity + reliability is high

164
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Structured Interviews?

A

Detail + meaning may be lost:
•Reducing complex attitudes + feelings to a series of numbers
•Reductionism
•Reduce validity

165
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews?

A
  • Questions aren’t standardised - hard to replicate + lack reliability
  • Qualitative data - so, difficult to analyse
166
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Semi-Structured Interviews?

A
  • Qualitative data - so, hard to analyse

* Quantitative data - detail may be lost - reduces validity

167
Q

What are the Different Types of Interviews?

A
  • Structured interviews
  • Unstructured interviews
  • Semi structured interviews
168
Q

What are Structured Interviews?

A
  • Have predetermined questions given in a set order
  • Standardised questions
  • Produces quantitative data as the questions are closed
169
Q

What are Unstructured Interviews?

A
  • Questions aren’t in a set format
  • Normally in a informal atmosphere + non-directive
  • Allows wider exploration of the original subject matter
  • Many questions will be open ended + qualitative data tends to be produced
170
Q

What are Semi Structured Interviews?

A
  • Set questions but the interviewer has more chance to explore the answers further
  • Produce quantitative and qualitative data
171
Q

What are Closed Questions?

A
  • Give participant a limited range of answers to choose from
  • Fixed response questions
172
Q

What are Open Questions?

A
  • Allow respondents to express themselves freely in their own words + without constraints
  • Gives rich information
173
Q

What is the Reliability in Questionnaires?

A

Standardised procedures used - so, high in reliability

174
Q

What is the Validity in Questionnaires?

A
  • Use closed questions - limits validity
  • If socially desirable answers given - lack validity
  • Misunderstand question - reduce validity
175
Q

What is the Objectivity/Subjectivity in Questionnaires?

A

Set questions - so, researchers don’t have a say, so can’t influence = objectivity

176
Q

What is the Reliability in Interviews?

A
  • Quantitative data - easy to replicate - reliability is high
  • Unstructured - questions aren’t standardised - lack reliability
177
Q

What is the Validity in Interviews?

A
  • Qualitative data - rich + detailed - validity can be high
  • Quantitative data - detail may be lost - reduces validity
178
Q

What is the Objectivity/Subjectivity in Interviews?

A

Qualitative data - researchers can be influenced by personal feelings = subjectivity

179
Q

What is Thematic Analysis?

A

Technique used for the analysis of qualitative data - identifying + assessing patterns in qualitative data allowing conclusions to be drawn

180
Q

What are the Strengths of Thematic Analysis?

A
  • Qualitative data can be turned into quantitative data
  • High validity as the data is qualitative + the main meanings in the data are preserved
  • Rich + qualitative data - providing ‘an intimate window onto the life worlds of people’ according to Braun + Clarke (2006)
  • Process of identifying codes + themes means that the researcher must derive themes from the data instead of imposing their own ideas = data is valid
181
Q

What are the Weaknesses of Thematic Analysis?

A
  • Time consuming - it’s hard to identify themes that fully represent the data + answer the research question
  • Reliability of results are undermined as different researchers may look at the same data + identify different themes
  • The themes identified end up coming from the researcher rather than the data - this is a form of researcher effect + undermines the validity of the conclusion reached
182
Q

What does Establishing Rapport mean in an Interview?

A
  • The interviewer should build a sympathetic + friendly relationship w/ interviewee
  • The interviewee should find the interviewer trustworthy + should feel comfortable w/ answering the questions
  • So, the responses are more open + honest = higher validity
183
Q

What is a Factor that Increases Reliability of Questionnaires?

A

Test-retest method

184
Q

What is a Factor that Decreases Reliability of Questionnaires?

A

Administered differently by different members of the research team

185
Q

What is a Factor that Increases Validity of Questionnaires?

A

Researcher doesn’t need to be present - answers are more ‘real’ and truthful

186
Q

What is a Factor that Decreases Validity of Questionnaires?

A

Often closed questions - participants have no opportunity to express themselves

187
Q

What is the Ethical Issue Raised by Questionnaires?

A

Deception:
•To control demand characteristics
•Use of filler questions to distract participants from main research aim

188
Q

What are the Strengths of Open Questions?

A

Rich information - more complex account of what people think or feel

189
Q

What are the Strengths of Closed Questions?

A

Easy to analyse - so, objective statistical comparisons can be made

190
Q

What are the Weaknesses of Open Questions?

A
  • Difficult to identify trends in data

* Answers may be long + rambling

191
Q

What are the Weaknesses of Closed Questions?

A
  • Lower validity as participants answer might not fall into a category
  • Can oversimplify human behaviour by reducing complex feelings/attitudes to a set of numbers
192
Q

What is a Socially Desirable Answer?

A

Respondents give an answer that reflects what they think they ‘ought’ to say to present themselves in a positive light

193
Q

Why are Socially Desirable Answers a Problem in Self-Report Methods of Research?

A

Response bias - lowers validity

194
Q

What is a Ranked Scale Item/Question on a Questionnaire?

A

Participants give a number to represent their views - quantitative

195
Q

What are the Strengths of Questionnaires?

A
  • High reliability - standardised procedures used + questionnaires easy to replicate
  • Standardised procedures act as controls of extraneous variables - so, answers given shouldn’t be affected by anything
  • Researcher doesn’t need to be present to administer the questionnaire - so, answers are more truthful + real as Ps comfortable
  • Allow researcher to gain access to what people actually think + feel about a topic
  • A lot of data collected in a cheap+ quick way
  • When closed questions used - quantitative data is easy to analyse
196
Q

What are the Weaknesses of Questionnaires?

A
  • Ps may misunderstand questions which limits validity
  • Often closed questions which limits the validity as Ps have no opportunity to express their views
  • Demand characteristics is a problem which lacks validity as they may give socially desirable answers - so, should put in filler questions to distract Ps, but this is deception
  • Questionnaires could be administered differently by different members of the research team - reducing the reliability
197
Q

What are Examples of the Types of Closed Questions?

A
  • Categories of response
  • Identifying categories
  • Likert scale
  • Ranked scale item
  • Semantic differential scales
  • Questions for children
198
Q

What is a Likert Scale?

A

Allows people to show how much they agree or disagree w/ a statement

199
Q

What is a Ranked Scale Item?

A

Participants asked to give a number to represent their view

200
Q

How do you Write an Appropriate Questionnaire?

A
  • Clarity - questions should be clear + concise

* Avoid bias - questions should be objective + value free

201
Q

What are the Principles of Questionnaire Design?

A
  • Fit for purpose
  • Filler questions
  • Sequence of questions
  • Standardised procedures
  • Pilot studies
  • Ethical issues
202
Q

What are Filler Questions as a Principle of Questionnaire Design?

A

Irrelevant questions to hide or distract from the main purpose of the questionnaire which will help reduce demand characteristics

203
Q

What is Sequence of Questions as a Principle of Questionnaire Design?

A

Begin questionnaire with easy questions saving the more sensitive questions until towards the end

204
Q

What is Fit for Purpose as a Principle of Questionnaire Design?

A

Questionnaire should be to the point in asking few questions as possible to ensure that respondents do not lose patience

205
Q

What are Questionnaires?

A

Self-report data collection method consisting of carefully structured questions given to participants in the standardised manner

Psychology (14 decks)

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