Clinical

Question 1

What are the 3 types of Symptoms of Schizophrenia?

Answer 1

• Positive
• Negative
• Cognitive

Question 2

What is Psychosis?

Answer 2

A general term for disorders that involve a loss of contact with reality

Question 3

What is Schizophrenia marked by?

Answer 3

•Periods of remission where the patient has no symptoms •Followed by relapses where their symptoms reoccur

Question 4

What is Schizophrenia?

Answer 4

• A psychotic disorder

* Where their ability to perceive, process + respond to environmental stimuli is impaired

Question 5

What are Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 5

Strange additions to normal behaviours

Question 6

What are Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 6

Loss of normal characteristics

Question 7

What are Cognitive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 7

Issues to do with information processing

Question 8

What are the 4 Types of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 8

• Delusions
• Hallucinations
• Disorganised thinking/speech
• Abnormal motor behaviour/disorganised behaviour

Question 9

What are Delusions as a Type of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 9

Bizarre beliefs which persist

Question 10

What are the Different Types of Delusions as a Type of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 10

• Delusions of reference
• Delusions of grandeur
• Delusions of persecution
• Thought insertion
• Thought broadcasting

Question 11

What are Delusions of Reference as a Type of Delusion as a Type of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 11

Patient believes that other peoples behaviour is directed specifically at them

Question 12

What are Delusions of Persecution as a Type of Delusion as a Type of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 12

Believes that one is being plotted or conspired against

Question 13

What is Thought Broadcasting as a Type of Delusion as a Type of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 13

Belief that others can hear their thoughts

Question 14

What is Thought Insertion as a Type of Delusion as a Type of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 14

Person believes that their thoughts have been implanted by some kind of external force

Question 15

What are the Cultural Differences of Delusions as a Type of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 15

• Delusions reflect pre-dominant themes + values of a persons culture
• In industrially advanced countries (America) patients delusions focus on sinister uses of tech - e.g. patients may report that they’re being spied on by their TV
• In Nigeria, mental illness is believed to be caused by evil spirits, so delusions may be in the form of witches
• So delusions differ according to the patient’s culture
• In some African cultures hallucinations are not seen as a sign of mental illness
• So different cultures may diagnose disorders differently

Question 16

What are Hallucinations as a Type of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 16

• Perception of stimuli not actually present
• It can be visual, auditory, or olfactory
• Sometimes they will comment on the individuals character, usually in an insulting manner or they may give a command

Question 17

What are the Cultural Differences of Hallucinations as a Type of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 17

• People from different cultures may interpret the voices that they hear differently
• Luhmann (2015) - found in some cultures the voices heard were harsh + critical, but in others they were seen as kind
• So symptoms of schizophrenia may vary from cultures

Question 18

What is Disorganised Thinking/Speech as a Type of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 18

• Underlying with conscious thought that has an effect on a person’s language
• Patient’s speech is jumbled due to loose associations in thoughts - where 1 idea constantly triggers another, so they jump from topic to topic

Question 19

What is Abnormal Motor Behaviour/Disorganised Behaviour as a Type of Positive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 19

Agitated movement - such as repeating movements over and over again

Question 20

What are the 6 Types of Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 20

• Lack of energy + movement
• Social withdrawal
• Flatness of emotion
• Not looking after appearance + self
• Lack of pleasure in everyday things
• Speaking little

Question 21

How do the Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia Link to Psychology as a Science?

Answer 21

They are more objective as they may be more directly observable

Question 22

What are the 3 Types of Cognitive Symptoms in Schizophrenia?

Answer 22

• Difficulties in concentrating + paying attention
• Problems with working memory
• Difficulties with executive functioning

Question 23

What are the 3 Features of Schizophrenia?

Answer 23

• Onset
• Prevalence
• Prognosis

Question 24

What is Onset as a Feature of Schizophrenia?

Answer 24

• Between late teens + mid 30s
• Peak onset is early to mid 20s in males, and late 20s for females
• The episodes develop gradually over time + may not be obvious at first

Question 25

What is Prevalence as a Feature of Schizophrenia?

Answer 25

• Refers to how common a disorder is
• It is a universal illness
• The likelihood of developing schizophrenia is between 0.7 and 1%
• This is influenced by racial/ethnic background, residence + birth country
• People who experience social problems (poverty + unemployment) are more likely to develop schizophrenia

Question 26

What is Prognosis as a Feature of Schizophrenia?

Answer 26

• Refers to likely course of the disease
• 25% of people who had a schizophrenic episode recover
• 50% of people have recurrent episodes
• 25% of people experience schizophrenic symptoms continually
• Life expectancy for person w/ schizophrenia is 10 years less than the average
• Males show higher proportion of negative symptoms + have longer duration of the disorder - these factors are associated w/ a poor prognosis

Question 27

How does Onset as a Feature of Schizophrenia Link to Developmental Psychology?

Answer 27

Schizophrenia is triggered by some aspect of development during the years of late teens and mid 30s - either biological or social

Question 28

How does Prevalence as a Feature of Schizophrenia Link to Individual Differences?

Answer 28

People who experience social problems such as poverty and unemployment are more likely to develop schizophrenia

Question 29

How does Prognosis as a Feature of Schizophrenia Link to Individual Differences?

Answer 29

Males show more negative symptoms + have a longer duration of the disorder - these factors are associated with poor prognosis

Question 30

How does Prognosis as a Feature of Schizophrenia Link to Cultural Differences?

Answer 30

The WHO international pilot study of schizophrenia suggests - patients w/ this disorder in developing countries have more positive prognosis than do patients in Western industrialised societies

Question 31

How does Prevalence as a Feature of Schizophrenia Link to Cultural Differences?

Answer 31

Prevalence varies according to countries

Question 32

What is a Neurotransmitter?

Answer 32

Chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with one another which allows our brains to think and feel so that our bodies are able to do things

Question 33

What is Dopamine?

Answer 33

Neurotransmitter associated with functions, including motivation and feeling pleasure

Question 34

What is the Dopamine Hypothesis?

Answer 34

Suggest that schizophrenia can be explained by changes of dopamine functioning in the brain

Question 35

How can Schizophrenia be Explained by High Levels of Dopamine?

Answer 35

• Low levels of beta hydroxylase, so excess dopamine builds up in the synapses
• Excess dopamine receptors at synapses in the brain
• Due to hyper sensitivity of certain dopamine receptors

Question 36

How are Low Levels of Serotonin Related to Schizophrenia?

Answer 36

Irregular serotonin activity = negative symptoms of schizophrenia

Question 37

How are Low Levels of Dopamine Related to Schizophrenia?

Answer 37

Low levels of dopamine in mesocortical pathway = negative symptoms

Question 38

How are High Levels of Dopamine Related to Schizophrenia?

Answer 38

High levels of dopamine in mesolimbic pathway = positive symptoms

Question 39

What are Neurotransmitters (which aren’t serotonin or dopamine) Which have a Influence on Schizophrenia?

Answer 39

• GABA

* Glutamate

Question 40

What are the Strengths of the Theory of Neurotransmitters as an Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 40

• Explains positive + negative symptoms - increase of dopamine in mesolimbic pathway accounts for positive symptoms, decrease of dopamine in mesocortical pathway accounts for negative symptoms
• Backed up by evidence from drug treatment - antipsychotic medications for work by blocking dopamine receptors
• Testable evidence that excess dopamine plays a role in schizophrenia - people given Levodopa experience schizophrenic-like symptoms (e.g. hallucinations)
• PET scans in investigating dopamine levels in patients provide an objective measure of neurotransmitter functioning in areas of the brain

Question 41

What are the Applications of the Theory of Neurotransmitters as an Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 41

Many antipsychotic medications used to treat schizophrenia work by blocking dopamine receptors

Question 42

What are the Weaknesses of the Theory of Neurotransmitters as an Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 42

• It’s reductionist - Ignores other factors that may influence whether someone develops schizophrenia - biological, psychological + social factors
• Cannot prove that excess dopamine causes schizophrenia, instead it may be a symptom of schizophrenia
• Not all patients with schizophrenia respond to the drugs - Friedhoff (1980) found that some patients show no improvement after taking dopamine antagonists
• PET scans show that blocking dopamine receptors doesn’t always remove the symptoms

Question 43

What did Brown and Birley (1968) Find which Suggests the Theory of Neurotransmitters as an Explanation for Schizophrenia
is Reductionist?

Answer 43

• Found that 50% of schizophrenic patients reported a major life event in the 3 weeks prior to the relapse
• Suggesting that social conditions may trigger relapse

Question 44

What did Owen (1978) Show which Supports the Theory of Neurotransmitters as an Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 44

• Post-mortem examinations of the brains of people with schizophrenia
• Showed that they had a higher density of dopamine receptors in the cerebral cortex

Question 45

What does it mean if Schizophrenia is Genetic?

Answer 45

• People who are genetically related to schizophrenics should be more likely to have schizophrenia themselves
• The chances of them having schizophrenia is higher

Question 46

What are the 3 Types of Research that have Investigated the Role of Genetics in Schizophrenia?

Answer 46

• Family studies
• Adoption studies
• Twin studies

Question 47

What are Family Studies as a Type of Research that has Investigated the Role of Genetics in Schizophrenia?

Answer 47

• Investigate whether close biological relatives also have schizophrenia
• Problematic as the closer the relative the more likely they are to share the same environment
• So it’s difficult to separate out the effects of nature with nurture

Question 48

What are Adoption Studies as a Type of Research that has Investigated the Role of Genetics in Schizophrenia?

Answer 48

• Useful as a genetic factor can be looked for in adopted children who have been apart from their biological parents
• Allows effects of nature to be separated from nurture which controls extraneous variable of environment
• The adopted children whose biological parents are schizophrenic have a higher risk of developing schizophrenia

Question 49

What are Twin Studies as a Type of Research that has Investigated the Role of Genetics in Schizophrenia?

Answer 49

• Schizophrenia in MZ and DZ twins can be compared
• If a twin has schizophrenia then the concordance rate between MZ twins should be 100% whereas it should be lower in DZ twins as they only share 50% of their genetic material

Question 50

What are Dizygotic (DZ) Twins?

Answer 50

• Non-identical

* Share 50% of their genes

Question 51

What are Monozygotic (MZ) Twins?

Answer 51

• Genetically identical

* Share 100% of their genes

Question 52

What were the Results from Gottesman and Shield’s (1966) Study which related to Twin Studies?

Answer 52

• Concordance rates for schizophrenia were higher in females compared to males for MZ and DZ twins
• Concordance rates higher for MZ+DZ twins for severe schizophrenia compared to mild
• Concordance rates for severe schizophrenia was much higher in MZ twins (75%) compared to DZ twins (22%)

Question 53

What were the Conclusions from Gottesman and Shield’s (1966) Study which related to Twin Studies?

Answer 53

• Schizophrenia does have a biological basis, developing it is influenced by a persons gene
• However, not totally caused by genes as concordance rate for MZ weren’t 100% •Therefore genes are a risk factor for developing it but environmental triggers are necessary

Question 54

What did Gottesman and Shield’s (1966) Investigate which related to Twin Studies?

Answer 54

Whether schizophrenia has a genetic basis for looking at concordance rates for schizophrenia and MZ and DZ twins

Question 55

What are the Strengths of Genes as an Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 55

• Evidence from Twin studies suggest that there is a significant genetic factor in schizophrenia (e.g. Gottesman + Sheild)
• Biological approach to explaining schizophrenia is associated with the medical profession + has scientific status + credibility

Question 56

What are the Weaknesses of Genes as an Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 56

• Research methods used to establish genetic links e.g. twin studies have flawed methodologies - as don’t take account that genes may function differently in different environments
• Reductionist as environmental factors may be involved in the development of schizophrenia - e.g. concordance rate in MZ twins for Schizophrenia is only around 40-50%, so if the illness was purely down to genetics, we’d expect the rate to be 100%
• Confusion as to which genes are responsible for predisposing a person to schizophrenia as there could be many, Wright (2014) suggested that 700 genes have been linked to schizophrenia

Question 57

What are the Individual differences in the Genetic Explanation of Schizophrenia?

Answer 57

• Symptoms of schizophrenia are very diverse and not the same for everyone
• Biological view is unlikely to be a complete one as there are likely to be different factors associated with developing the disorder that may account for the various subtypes and presentation of symptoms

Question 58

What is the Issue and Debate of Nature-Nurture in the Genetic Explanation of Schizophrenia?

Answer 58

• Diathesis-stress model argue that schizophrenia develops in those who have a biological predisposition to developing illness due to genetic’s (neurochemical or neuroanatomical factors)
• But who also have some sort of environmental trigger - suggest the cause is a combination of factors

Question 59

What does the Diathesis-Stress Model of Schizophrenia Suggest about the Genetic Explanation?

Answer 59

A genetic disposition which becomes apparent when the individual becomes stressed by factors in their environment

Question 60

How is Developmental Psychology Linked to the Genetic Explanation of Schizophrenia?

Answer 60

• Schizophrenia can be explained through the process of development
• Thomas (2010) suggests schizophrenia stems from abnormalities in early brain development
• Prenatal exposure to infection or lack of nutrition have been linked with schizophrenia (Opler and Susser (2005))
• Schizophrenia develops in late adolescence and early adulthood

Question 61

What are the Similarities between the Neurotransmitter Explanation for Schizophrenia and the Genetic Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 61

• Both reductionist
• Both are biological explanations in terms of the medical model
• Both have research evidence to support their theories

Question 62

What is the Cognitive Explanation of Schizophrenia?

Answer 62

• Explain human behaviour in terms of information processing
• So, explains the symptoms of schizophrenia in terms of the patients thought processes
• Cognitive impairments play an important role in the development and maintenance of schizophrenia

Question 63

What are the 2 Cognitive Factors which may Explain Schizophrenia?

Answer 63

• Problems with attention

* Problems with memory

Question 64

What are the Problems with Attention as a Cognitive Factor which may Explain Schizophrenia?

Answer 64

• People with schizophrenia have attentional processes which work in a different way
• They don’t have normal functioning of these filtering processes, leading them to pay too much attention to irrelevant stimuli
• Preventing them from making sense of the world in the way that most people can

Question 65

What does Frith (1979) Suggest which Supports the Problems with Attention as a Cognitive Factor which may Explain Schizophrenia?

Answer 65

• Inability to filter out unnecessary cognitive noise created by internal information processing
• Patient is unable to self monitor effectively, resulting in hallucinations or delusions as they don’t realise that their thoughts are self generated
• Patient experiences their own internal thought as an external voice
• Which explains the symptoms of hallucinations and delusions

Question 66

What does Hemsley (1993) Suggest which Supports the Problems with Memory as a Cognitive Factor which may Explain Schizophrenia?

Answer 66

• People with schizophrenia aren’t able to activate relevant schemas
• They experience sensory overload, so they are unable to predict what will happen next, their concentration is poor + they attend to irrelevant aspects of the environment
• Their poor integration of memory + perception leads to disorganised thinking and behaviour

Question 67

What are the Problems with Memory as a Cognitive Factor which may Explain Schizophrenia?

Answer 67

• There is a substantial breakdown in the relationship between memory and perception in schizophrenics
• Which is linked to schemas, as relevant schemas are not triggered in people w/ schizophrenia

Question 68

What is the Research by McGuigan (1966) which Supports the Cognitive Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 68

• Found that the larynx of patients with schizophrenia was active during the time they were experiencing auditory hallucinations
• Suggesting that they mistook their own inner speech for that of someone else

Question 69

What is the Research by McGuire (1996) which Supports the Cognitive Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 69

Found schizophrenics to have reduced activity in the parts of the brain involved in monitoring inner speech

Question 70

What is the Research from PET Scans which Supports the Cognitive Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 70

• Show under activity in the frontal lobe of the brain of people suffering from schizophrenia
• Which is linked to self monitoring
• Providing biological support for this explanation

Question 71

What are the Strengths of the Cognitive Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 71

• It explains some of the key problems associated with schizophrenia, e.g. it explains the symptom of delusions + hallucinations + disorganised behaviour
• It is supported by research evidence
• Useful in developing effective treatments which have helped many people with mental disorders by alleviating the symptoms and improving their lives - e.g. Morrison (2014) found that cognitive therapy reduced psychiatric symptoms + is safe for people with schizophrenia
• It is less reductionist as it includes the idea that delusions are triggered by strange sensory experiences that arise from biological problems, suggesting a complex interaction between biological and cognitive causes of schizophrenia

Question 72

What are the Weaknesses of the Cognitive Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 72

• Difficult to find out whether the cognitive problems are a cause of their disorder or an affect, As they may play a role in causing schizophrenia or schizophrenia itself may cause the cognitive problems
• It is reductionist as it underestimates genetic factors, stressful life events and social factors in the development of schizophrenia
• Many brain-damaged patients have problems with attention or the relationship between memory and perception, but they failed to develop the symptoms of schizophrenia, which challenges the cognitive explanations

Question 73

What are the Similarities between the Genetic Explanation and the Cognitive Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 73

• Both supported by research evidence
• Both look at human body as part of the explanation, as 1 looks at memory and the other looks at genes
• Both reductionist as they underestimate the other factors into schizophrenia - such as social and environmental

Question 74

What are the Differences between the Genetic Explanation and the Cognitive Explanation for Schizophrenia?

Answer 74

• Cognitive explanation can be more useful as it leads directly to treatment
• Cognitive looks at memory + attention as part of the explanation, whereas genetic looks at the biological inherited genes as part of the explanation
• Genetic can show cause + effect link between genes + schizophrenia, whereas the cognitive symptoms shown may be a symptom of schizophrenia rather than a cause

Question 75

What is the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC)?

Answer 75

• Clinical practitioners must register with this

* It sets standards which practitioners must meet in order to remain registered with the HCPC

Question 76

What are the 7 Standards Set Out by the HCPC for Clinical Practitioners?

Answer 76

• Character
• Health
• Standards of proficiency
• Standards of conduct, performance + ethics
• Standard for continuing personal development
• Standards of education and training
• Standards for prescribing

Question 77

What is Character as a Standard Set Out by the HCPC for Clinical Practitioners?

Answer 77

• Registrants provide credible character references from people who have known them for at least three years
• Considering any criminal convictions and their character traits

Question 78

What is Health as a Standard Set Out by the HCPC for Clinical Practitioners?

Answer 78

• Provide info every two years when they re-register about their general health
• Provide info on any health issues that they have only if it’s likely to affect their ability to practice safely

Question 79

What are the Standards of Profficiency as a Standard Set Out by the HCPC for Clinical Practitioners?

Answer 79

• There are a set of specific expectations for practitioners psychologists
• E.g. professional autonomy + accountability, delivery of strategies for meeting health + social care needs
• Specific requirements within each standard to be demonstrated by practitioners in different areas of psychology

Question 80

What are Standards of Conduct, Performance and Ethics as a Standard Set Out by the HCPC for Clinical Practitioners?

Answer 80

• List of 14 guidelines that practitioners must adhere to in their clinical practice
• Including points such as maintaining confidentiality in work with service users, referring on to others when necessary, and only acting within the limits of their own knowledge

Question 81

What are Standards for Continuing Personal Development as a Standard Set Out by the HCPC for Clinical Practitioners?

Answer 81

• Professionals expected to take part in + document regular training that they undertake to develop their own practice
• Including training events, evidence on how they’ve changed their practice, and an evaluation of the effectiveness of these changes

Question 82

What are Standards of Education + Training as a Standard Set Out by the HCPC for Clinical Practitioners?

Answer 82

•Set of minimum levels of qualification specified before people can register to practice in
different areas of health + care professions
•Registrants must be able to evidence at least a master degree with bps qualification in the area of practice they will be working in
•HCPC sets out standards for training courses

Question 83

What are Standards for Prescribing as a Standard Set Out by the HCPC for Clinical Practitioners?

Answer 83

• These standards set out safe practice for prescribing medication by health and care professionals
• Including the required knowledge and training to be able to prescribe within professional practice

Question 84

What are the 2 Treatments which can Help People with Schizophrenia?

Answer 84

• Drug treatment

* Cognitive treatment

Question 85

What is Drug Treatment for Schizophrenia Based on?

Answer 85

• The medical model of mental disorder
• Where mental disorders are seen as an illness + assumed they have biological causes
• Treatments are physical in nature

Question 86

What are the Drugs used in Treatment for Schizophrenia Known as?

Answer 86

Anti-psychotic drugs

Question 87

How does the Dopamine Hypothesis Explains how Drug Treatments for Schizophrenia Work?

Answer 87

Schizophrenia results from abnormally high levels of dopamine

Question 88

How did the 1st Anti-Psychotic Drug (Phenothiazine) Explain how Drug Treatments for Schizophrenia Work?

Answer 88

• Blocking receptors for dopamine
• So, effects of dopamine aren’t picked up by the Brain
• However, there were side effects - shaking, muscle tremors, jerky movement

Question 89

What are the New Drug Treatments for Schizophrenia and How do they Work?

Answer 89

• Clozapine - acts by blocking serotonin receptors

* Olanzapine + risperidone - have fewer side effects + more effective - known as ‘atypical’ drugs

Question 90

What are the Strengths of Drug Treatment for Schizophrenia?

Answer 90

• Effective in reducing symptoms + more effective than any other form of therapy as reduces symptoms quickly
• Useful w/ assistance of antipsychotic drugs
• Allowed patients to live relatively normal lives - prior to phenothiazine, schizophrenia was considered untreatable
• Appropriate as it has more of genetic basis - main drugs used to treat schizophrenia block dopamine receptors, so appropriate to use as they target parts of physiological system that function abnormally in Schizophrenia

Question 91

What did Meltzer (2004) Find which Supports that Drug Treatment is Effective in Reducing Symptoms of Schizophrenia?

Answer 91

Haloperidol gave significant improvements in all areas of functioning compared to placebo

Question 92

What are the Weaknesses of Drug Treatment for Schizophrenia?

Answer 92

• It’s reductionist - ignores psychological + social factors
• Effectiveness + usefulness of drug therapy is limited - it is palliative - it suppresses the symptoms of the disorder without addressing the underlying causal processes - patients have to take drugs for many years
• Unethical - drugs often produce side effects + some patients unable to give consent + may lead to addiction + dependency
• Relapse is a problem - drugs don’t offer a long term cure as they don’t address the cause of the problem
• Some patients are resistant to drugs
• Most common drugs aren’t effective in treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia

Question 93

How is Drug Treatment for Schizophrenia an Issue of Social Control?

Answer 93

• Drug treatment can be looked down on in society as it’s considered that you need to alter their behaviours to become more ‘normal’ - social norms in society
• Cannot assume everyone has same symptoms + severity of symptoms due to labelling them ‘schizophrenic’
• Pharmaceutical drug company’s want money

Question 94

Why is Drug Treatment the Most Common Biological Treatment for Schizophrenia?

Answer 94

• Dopamine hypothesis is widely accepted explanation for schizophrenia
• Suggests that schizophrenia may result from high levels of dopamine
• So, it follows the most common form of biological treatment for schizophrenia is drug therapy

Question 95

What does the Cognitive Model of Abnormality Assume?

Answer 95

• Mental disorder is created by errors in thinking

* Thoughts influence emotions + feelings

Question 96

What do Cognitive Behavioural Therapies Attempt to do?

Answer 96

Attempt to change maladaptive behaviour by changing the way people think

Question 97

What does the Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Assume?

Answer 97

• Patients have irrational thoughts + beliefs about themselves + the world
• Thoughts + beliefs are negative, self-defeating + contribute to development of mental disorders

Question 98

How do Therapists using Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Try to Change the Patients Behaviour?

Answer 98

• Focusing on the present symptoms
• Looking at how the person thinks about how an event affected them - what they felt + how they behaved
• Challenge negative thoughts + change them for more realistic + positive thoughts
• Person will feel better + behaviour will change

Question 99

What is the Aim of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy when Treating Schizophrenia?

Answer 99

Reduce the stress felt by the patient with schizophrenia + allow them to help them mange + understand their symptoms

Question 100

What are the 3 Techniques Used in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Schizophrenia?

Answer 100

• Belief modification
• Focusing + reattribution
• Normalising the experiences of the person w/ schizophrenia

Question 101

What is Belief Modification as a Technique Used in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Schizophrenia?

Answer 101

Delusional thinking is challenged

Question 102

What is Focusing + Reattribution as a Technique Used in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Schizophrenia?

Answer 102

• To help w/ hallucinations (auditory)

* Therapist aims to show that the voices are self-generated + don’t need to be feared

Question 103

What is Normalising the Experiences of the Person with Schizophrenia as a Technique Used in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Schizophrenia?

Answer 103

Psychotic symptoms are looked at as more normal to reduce the fear related to them

Question 104

What are the Strengths of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy as a Treatment for Schizophrenia?

Answer 104

• Useful as effective in treating - patients show increase in coping skills + decreased hallucinations + delusions
• Most ethical - empowers patients by educating them in self-help strategies + they have more control over the process - allows patients to be more independent
• Strategies learned cab be incorporated into a patients life - so it’s a useful treatment

Question 105

What are the Weaknesses of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy as a Treatment for Schizophrenia?

Answer 105

• Reductionist - doesn’t address the underlying cause of the mental disorder as it overlooks biological causes
• Not effective - patient suffering severe schizophrenia may lack problem solving skills + don’t have an insight into their condition
• Effectiveness is hard to judge - control treatments are sometimes given by non-experts, so the use of inadequate control treatment conditions may explain some of the findings

Question 106

What did Sensky (2000) Find which Supports that Cognitive Behavioural Treatment is Effective in Treating Schizophrenia?

Answer 106

• He compared CBT w/ non-specific ‘befriending interventions’ for patients w/ schizophrenia
• Found that CBT was more effective in reducing both positive + negative symptoms of schizophrenia

Question 107

How does Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Link to the Issue of Social Control?

Answer 107

• CBT can be seen as an agent of social control, so patients thoughts may be changed to fit into social norms
• Superficial way of trying to get patients to act normally without actually addressing the problem
• But, by alleviating the symptoms, it makes the patient much more independent

Question 108

What are 2 Similarities Between Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Drug Treatment as Treatments for Schizophrenia?

Answer 108

• Both supported by research evidence - e.g. Sensky, Meitzar
• Both are useful as they allow people to live independent lives
• Both ignore social factors

Question 109

What are 2 Differences Between Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Drug Treatment as Treatments for Schizophrenia?

Answer 109

• Drug Therapy is more reductionist than CBT, as it focuses purely on biological treatment , where CBT looks at cognitive + behavioural
• CBT can be considered more ethical than drug therapy

Question 110

What is a Review Article?

Answer 110

Summarises previously published studies

Question 111

Why are Review Articles Useful?

Answer 111

• Looks at recent major advances + discoveries
• Looks at significant gaps in research
• Looks at current debates
• Looks at ideas of where research might go next

Question 112

What are the Strengths of Review Articles?

Answer 112

• Generate new ideas about where research should go next
• Can close significant gaps in research
• Draws together wide body of data
• Includes recent major developments

Question 113

What are the Weaknesses of Review Articles?

Answer 113

Has practical problems - validity and reliability may be interpretative if original studies had flaws

Question 114

What is the Aim of the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 114

Review research to investigate:
•Use info on psychosis + neurotransmitter functioning to produce new antipsychotic drugs that are more effective w/ fewer side-effects
•Show neurotransmitter functioning in specific brain areas
•Investigate neurotransmitter functioning + psychosis, beyond the dopamine hypothesis

Question 115

What is the Procedure of the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 115

• Literature review
• Methods + findings of studies to do w/ neurotransmitter interactions in schizophrenia are analysed
• Including studies using rodents to test neurotransmitter functioning + related brain structure functioning, studies on people w/ acute schizophrenia + people with schizophrenia in remission, studies which used brain scans to investigate psychosis

Question 116

What were the Key Points about Dopamine from the Literature Review of the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 116

• PET scans provide evidence to show high levels of dopamine related to psychosis - e.g. Abi-Dargham (1998) + Breier (1997)
• Supporting the dopamine hypothesis
• However interactions with other neurotransmitters (e.g. noradrenaline, serotonin, acetylcholine, glutamate, + GABA) may be related w/ schizophrenia

Question 117

What were the Key Points about Glutamate from the Literature Review of the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 117

• Low levels of glutamate play a role in schizophrenia
• Lodge (1989) - shows that PCP can induce psychosis by inhibiting the action of glutamate in the brain
• Glutamate failure in cerebral cortex may lead to negative symptoms of schizophrenia, •Glutaminergic in the basal ganglia could be responsible for positive symptoms

Question 118

What were the Key Points about Dopamine and Glutamate from the Literature Review of the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 118

• Some research has found an interaction between dopamine and glutamate
• Reduced levels of glutamate is associated with increased dopamine release

Question 119

What were the Key Points about Serotonin from the Literature Review of the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 119

• Serotonin may be implicated in schizophrenia
• Serotonin levels are related to dopamine
• Clozapine works by reducing dopamine and serotonin levels in the brain
• NMDA antagonists, which limit glutamate, seem to stimulate serotonin levels

Question 120

What were the 2 Main Theories About the Causes of Schizophrenia from the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 120

• Whether high levels of dopamine (hyperdopaminergia) cause schizophrenia
• Whether low levels of glutamate (hypoglutamatergia) cause schizophrenia

Question 121

What was the Conclusions from the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 121

• Glutamate deficiency may explain increased dopamine responsiveness
• Glutamate deficiency should be studied
• Increased serotonin activity is found in people w/ schizophrenia - dopamine + serotonin contribute to the positive + negative symptoms
• More focus on other neurotransmitters is needed (e.g. GABA, acetylcholine, etc)
• May be different subpopulations of those w/ schizophrenia, where it’s caused by different abnormal levels of different neurotransmitters - this has implications for treatment

Question 122

What are the Strengths of the Secondary Data from the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 122

• Provides an overview of key findings in the area
• generate new ideas about where research should go next
• Closes significant gaps in research
• Draws together wide body of data - allowing a large amount of info to be brought together quickly
• Because of the extensive nature of material covered, the conclusion drawn is likely to be valid
• Ethical - no direct ethical issues

Question 123

What are the Weaknesses of the Secondary Data from the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 123

• Studies rely on secondary data from many other studies
• The validity and reliability of Carlsson’s study may be affected by any research issues in the original studies
• So, any conclusions from his study may be problematic

Question 124

What are the Strengths of the Original 33 Studies from the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 124

• High reliability - studies cited by Carlsson are lab experiments - many are animal + PET scans using standardised procedures + controlled
• High validity - Carlsson considered glutamate as a possible contribute to schizophrenia (another hypothesis), he argues both hypotheses may be true + research should continue in both (evidence seems to suggest this), he questions the validity of the dopamine hypothesis he himself developed in 1950s, Sendt (2012) literature review supports Carlsson’s findings

Question 125

What are the Weaknesses of the Original 33 Studies from the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 125

• Low generalisability - some findings come from animals - so may not generalise to humans, culture may influence the type of auditory hallucinations (Luhrman, 2015), may be time locked (1999/2000) so research may no longer be representative of state of scientific ideas
• Unethical - issues of deception + risk as patients don’t know if they’re being given the real drug or placebo, studies use humans - with or without schizophrenia being given amphetamines or PCP or other drugs that increased psychotic symptoms

Question 126

What are the Applications from the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 126

• Useful in developing antipsychotic drugs
• Glutamate antipsychotics are still in development (Papanastasiou et al, 2013) could bring relief to people who don’t respond well to typical antipsychotics
• Improved dopaminergic drugs that have fewer side-effects based on better understanding of dopamine pathways + new atypical drugs that affect other neurotransmitters, like serotonin and glutamate

Question 127

What are the Issue and Debates about Psychology as a Science in the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 127

• Use of scientific methods- e.g. PET scans
• High validity - looks at a wide range of studies
• Uses animal studies which aren’t generalisable
• Not valid data - review article uses secondary data which might have flaws
• High validity + credibility- Breier et al (1997) produced objective data

Question 128

What are the Issue and Debates about Practical Issues in the Design and Implementation of Research in the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 128

• Difficult to study functioning of neurotransmitter in the brain
• So, neurotransmitters which are easiest to study (dopamine + serotonin) tend to be most researched and others which are important tend to be ignored

Question 129

What are the Issue and Debates about Reduction in the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 129

• This research is purely biological as only focuses on neurotransmitters, so it ignores social + cognitive factors
• But, research uses many different studies to draw its conclusions (rodent studies, PET scans), as it generates such a wide range of evidence it can be considered somewhat holistic, also looked at many different neurotransmitters

Question 130

What are the Issue and Debates about an Understanding of How Psychological Understanding has Developed Over Time in the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 130

• Further research suggested by the article will lead to more changes
• Methods of investigating neurotransmitters have become more sophisticated overtime
• Further research found that there is an interaction between dopamine + glutamate, as reduced level of glutamate is associated with increased dopamine levels

Question 131

What are the Issue and Debates about the Use of Psychological Knowledge Within Society in the Contemporary Study for Schizophrenia by Carlsson (2000)?

Answer 131

• The research suggests areas for further research which can be used to inform further treatments for schizophrenia
• Future research as different sub populations have abnormal levels in different transmitters, not just dopamine

Question 132

What is the Aim of the Longitudinal Study for Schizophrenia by Sensky (2000)?

Answer 132

Compare cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) w/ non-specific ‘befriending interventions’ for patients w/ schizophrenia in effectively reducing positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Question 133

What is the Design of the Longitudinal Study for Schizophrenia by Sensky (2000)?

Answer 133

• Randomised controlled design
• Patients allocated to one of two groups: A cognitive behavioural therapy group or an non-specific befriending control group

Question 134

What were the Participants of the Longitudinal Study for Schizophrenia by Sensky (2000)?

Answer 134

• 90 patients - 57 from clinics in Newcastle, Cleveland and Durham and 33 from London
• They had a diagnosis of schizophrenia that had not responded to medication
• Aged 16 to 60 years

Question 135

What were the Results of the Longitudinal Study for Schizophrenia by Sensky (2000)?

Answer 135

• Both interventions resulted in significant reductions in positive and negative symptoms and depression
• At the 9 month follow-up evaluation, patients who had received cognitive therapy showed greater improvements on all measures

Question 136

What were the Conclusions of the Longitudinal Study for Schizophrenia by Sensky (2000)?

Answer 136

CBT is effective in treating negative + positive symptoms of schizophrenia that are resistant to standard antipsychotic drugs, w/ its efficiency sustained over 9 months of follow-up

Question 137

What was the Procedure for the

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Group of the Longitudinal Study for Schizophrenia by Sensky (2000)?

Answer 137

• Normal routine of CBT used - engaging with patient, examining antecedents of psychotic disorder, developing a normalising rationale + treatment of other disorders
• Specific techniques for positive symptoms of schizophrenia used
• Patients helped to change their beliefs + taught coping strategies to deal with the voices

Question 138

What was the Procedure for the Befriending Group of the Longitudinal Study for Schizophrenia by Sensky (2000)?

Answer 138

• Patients had same time allocation at the same intervals as the patients in the CBT
• Therapists were empathetic + non-directive
• No attempt at therapy, the sessions focused on hobbies, sports + current affairs

Question 139

What was the Procedure for Assessing the Patients of the Longitudinal Study for Schizophrenia by Sensky (2000)?

Answer 139

• Assessed by blind raters at baseline, after treatment (lasting up to 9 months), and a 9 month follow-up evaluation
• Assessed using comprehensive psychiatric rating scale, the scale for assessment of negative symptoms and a depression rating scale
• Patients continued to received routine care throughout the study
• Patients received a mean of 19 individual treatment sessions over 9 months

Question 140

What does Diagnosis Involve?

Answer 140

• Clinician assessing a patient •Decides whether they show evidence of mental disorder
• Decides whether their symptoms match those in a checklist of the features + symptoms of a mental disorder

Question 141

Why is it Hard to Define Abnormal Behaviour in an Objective and Scientific Way?

Answer 141

• No clear dividing line separating normal + abnormal behaviour
• Concept of abnormality can change over time
• Concept of abnormality can change between societies/cultures
• Many different types of behaviour can be considered abnormal

Question 142

What are the 4 D’s of Diagnosis?

Answer 142

• Deviance
• Distress
• Dysfunction
• Danger

Question 143

What is Deviance as 1 of the 4 D’s of Diagnosis?

Answer 143

• Behaviours/emotions that are unusual in society

* Behaviour must be statistically rare + disapproved of by most in society

Question 144

What is Distress as 1 of the 4 D’s of Diagnosis?

Answer 144

Extent to which the individual finds their behaviour and/or emotions upsetting

Question 145

What is Dysfunction as 1 of the 4 D’s of Diagnosis?

Answer 145

Extent to which the behaviour interferes with the persons day-to-day life

Question 146

What is Danger as 1 of the 4 D’s of Diagnosis?

Answer 146

Behaviour which could harm others or the individual

Question 147

What is the Issue and Debate of Issues of Social Control in the Diagnosis of Mental Disorders?

Answer 147

• Clinicians have a lot of power and influence in the diagnosing of mental health problems
• This has implications for patients who are labelled as mentally ill
• As it’s possible to treat patients against their will if their sectioned by the mental health act + considered at risk to themselves or others
• But, antipsychotic medication is critical for alleviating the distress associated with schizophrenia + enabling quality of life to be restored

Question 148

What are the Strengths of the 4 D’s of Diagnosis?

Answer 148

• Useful - they have practical applications in helping professionals decide whether a patient symptoms need a clinical diagnosis
• Holistic way to assess someone’s mental health - cover a wide range of symptoms
• Davis (2009) - suggests a 5th D needs to be added - duration to increase validity

Question 149

What are the Weaknesses of the 4 D’s of Diagnosis?

Answer 149

• Low validity - as diagnosis may not be accurate
• Low reliability - if used by 2 professionals, may not get same diagnosis - reducing scientific status of diagnosis
• Subjectivity in the application of the 4 D’s - E.g. dysfunction is subjective as individual may not think they have a problem + their unusual behaviour may suit them
• Distress + danger is subjective + difficult to measure - not all mental disorders are distressing
• Model criticised for being incomplete - Davis (2009) suggests that duration needs to be added

Question 150

What is the Issue and Debate of Practical Issues in the Design and Implementation of Research in the Diagnosis of Mental Disorders?

Answer 150

• Issues of reliability + validity- diagnosis process conducted through unstructured or semi-structured interviews
• When gathering highly sensitive data about someone’s mental health - there are problems with the self-report method

Question 151

What is the Issue and Debate of Psychology as a Science in the Diagnosis of Mental Disorders?

Answer 151

• Diagnosing disorders relies on unstructured/semi-structured interviews
• Involving the clinicians subjective interpretation of data
• Which reduces scientific status of the diagnosing of mental illness as it’s objective, lacks reliability and validity

Question 152

Why are Classification Systems used by Practitioners?

Answer 152

To help them make diagnosis + establish appropriate treatment regimes

Question 153

What is the Aim of Classification Systems?

Answer 153

Provide clear + measurable criteria for diagnosis, which can be used in the same way by all practitioners - increasing the reliability of diagnosis

Question 154

What is the Medical Model of Abnormality?

Answer 154

• Biological approach assuming that the major source of abnormal behaviour is a form of medical illness
• Believes that the best treatment for mental disorders is biological - e.g. drug treatment

Question 155

What are the Strengths of the Medical Model of Abnormality?

Answer 155

• Scientific + objective approach to diagnosis - has a lot of scientific credibility
• It group symptoms together + classifies them into a syndrome - so, their cause can be discovered + treated

Question 156

What are the Limitations of the Medical Model of Abnormality?

Answer 156

• Limited - criticised for just focusing on the symptoms + not causes of this disorder - e.g. the model was criticised by anti-psychiatry movement in the 1960s
• Symptoms cannot be easily measured, so clinician must make a subjective judgement

Question 157

What was the Anti-Psychiatry Movement in the 1960’s which Criticised the Medical Model of Abnormality?

Answer 157

• Thomas Szasz + R.D. Laing suggested that psychiatric symptoms is an understandable reaction to coping with a sick society
• They felt that mental hospitals were not designed to cure people + they function as a prison, where disruptive people could be removed from society
• Concerned that diagnosis could be used as an agent of state control + diagnosis results in labelling + could be used to medicalise social problems
• Concerned about controversial medical practices in psychiatry - e.g. use of lobotomies as a treatment

Question 158

What are the 2 Major Classification Systems?

Answer 158

• ICD 10

* DSM-5

Question 159

What is the Purpose of the DSM-5 and the ICD 10?

Answer 159

• Diagnostic tool is designed to enable practitioners to identify + treat particular disorders
• To provide a standardised, criterion based system to allow for accurate diagnosis of mental disorders

Question 160

Why are the DSM and ICD Regularly Reviewed and Updated?

Answer 160

• To take into account new research
• To take account of peoples changing cultural views
• To show that psychological understanding changes and develops over time

Question 161

What are the Similarities Between the DSM and ICD?

Answer 161

• Both regularly updated
• Both attempt to make diagnosis accurate across cultures
• Both rely on checklists + can be criticised for being reductionist
• Both criticised as use the medical model
• Both designed to enable practitioners to identify + treat particular disorders
• Both include categories of mental disorders based on characteristic patterns of symptoms

Question 162

What are the Differences Between the DSM and ICD?

Answer 162

• DSM less reductionist than ICD - so it’s more holistic than ICD
• ICD used in many countries in the world, but DSM used in America
• ICD is free + an open resource, but DSM generates profits for the American psychological Association
• DSM only deals w/ mental conditions, but ICD also diagnoses physical illness

Question 163

What is the Issue and Debate of Reductionist vs Holistic in the Classification Systems?

Answer 163

• DSM and ICD rely on checklists
• Can be criticised for being reductionist
• But, DSM takes account of psychological factors + disability, so it’s less reductionist than the ICD

Question 164

What is the Issue and Debate of How Psychological Understanding has Changed Over Time in the Classification Systems?

Answer 164

• Late 19th Century - Kraeplin argued that pychiatric disorders are physical in nature + should be studied as a branch of medical science + it is possible to classify specific mental health disorders by their symptoms, diagnose them + predict their course
• Both DSM + ICD are regularly updated

Question 165

What is the Issue and Debate of Psychology as a Science in the Classification Systems?

Answer 165

• Reliable - rely on standardised checklists of observable behaviour - used in the same way by all clinicians
• But, there will always be an element of subjectivity when interpreting the diagnostic criteria

Question 166

What is the Issue and Debate of Practical Issues in the Classification Systems?

Answer 166

• DSM +ICD are regularly updated

* So, they show that psychological understanding changes and develops over time

Question 167

What is the Issue and Debate of Cultural Differences in the Classification Systems?

Answer 167

• DSM and ICD attempt to make diagnosis accurate across cultures
• But, some argue that they still have a western bias

Question 168

When was the DSM 5 Published?

Answer 168

May 2013

Question 169

What does the DSM-5 Assess Individuals In Terms Of?

Answer 169

• The type of disorder from which they suffer - e.g. psychotic disorders
• Psychological + contextual factors - as it can influence the well-being of the individual - e.g. unemployment
• Disability - looks at overall level of functioning of the individual
• Co-existing factors - e.g. medical conditions

Question 170

What does the DSM-5 Assessment of an Individual Involve?

Answer 170

• Clinical interviews
• Observations of the client
• Medical records of the client
• Focuses on assessing patients along the spectrum

Question 171

What is the Issue and Debate of Developmental Psychology in the Classification Systems?

Answer 171

• Latest version of DSM reflects developmental + lifespan considerations
• Reflects developmental processes that occur early in life (e.g. schizophrenia) and those that are more commonly developed during adolescence (e.g. depression)
• Highlighting understanding that some psychiatric illnesses occur during certain periods of our development

Question 172

How does the DSM 5 Manual Divide into 3 Sections?

Answer 172

• 1 - Intro to manual w/ instructions on its use
• 2 - Contains classification of the main mental health disorders - e.g. OCD, schizophrenia, bipolar, anxiety, etc
• 3 - Contains other assessment measures to aid diagnosis - cultural formulation interview guide to help diagnose individuals from a different culture from the clinician + includes other conditions that are being assessed for possible future diagnosis

Question 173

When is Diagnosis is Considered to be Reliable?

Answer 173

• If different practitioners arrive at same diagnosis of a patient
• When clinicians agree on a diagnosis there is high inter-rater reliability for the system of diagnosis

Question 174

What is the Evidence from Spitzer and Williams (1985) that Suggests that Diagnosis is Low in Reliability?

Answer 174

• Reviewed process of diagnosis

* Suggested that experienced psychiatrists only agree on diagnosis about 50% of the time

Question 175

What is the Evidence from Hiller et al (1992) that Suggests that Diagnosis is Low in Reliability?

Answer 175

Argued reliability is in doubt for some disorders related to schizophrenia

Question 176

What is the Evidence from Brown (2002) that Suggests that Diagnosis is High in Reliability?

Answer 176

• Tested reliability + validity of DSM-5 diagnosis for anxiety + mood disorders
• Found them to be good to excellent

Question 177

What is the Evidence from Jacobsen et al (2005) that Suggests that Diagnosis is High in Reliability?

Answer 177

• Through a random sample of Danish in-patients + outpatient’s w/ a history of schizophrenia
• Showed that ICD 10 is a reliable measure of schizophrenia + compares well in terms of reliability with the DSM-111-R

Question 178

What is the Evidence from Pederson (2001) that Suggests that Diagnosis is High in Reliability?

Answer 178

• Found 71% of psychiatrists agreed with the ICD 10 definition of depression when assessing 116 patients
• This indicates high inter-rater reliability

Question 179

What are the Improvements in Reliability of Diagnosis?

Answer 179

• Improved w/ the use of standardised interview schedules specifying symptoms to ask about + giving instructions as to how to rate their severity
• DSM + ICD have specific diagnostic operational criteria for diagnosis to increase objectivity + reliability - e.g. clear definitions are given for each disorder + a list of symptoms

Question 180

What are the Possible Patient Factors that Impact on Reliability of Diagnosis?

Answer 180

• Patients may give different psychiatrists slightly different info
• E.g. lack of standardisation in assessment + interview techniques
• Leading to different practitioners giving different diagnoses to the same person

Question 181

What are the Possible Clinician Factors that Impact on Reliability of Diagnosis?

Answer 181

• Practitioners using the classification systems aren’t completely objective
• Practitioner may not use the categories of the classification system correctly or they may gather insufficient info

Question 182

What is the Evidence from Ward (1962) that Suggests that Diagnosis is Low in Reliability?

Answer 182

• Studied 2 psychiatrists diagnosing the same patient
• Found that disagreement occurred because of the inconsistency of info provided by the patient (5%), psychiatrists interpretation of symptoms (32.5%), inadequacy of the classification system (62.5%)

Question 183

What does the Validity of Diagnosis Refer to?

Answer 183

The extent to which a diagnosis is accurate

Question 184

What is Concurrent Validity in Diagnosis?

Answer 184

• Compares evidence from different diagnostic tests to see if they agree
• The DSM + ICD seem to have good concurrent validity

Question 185

What is Aetiological Validity in Diagnosis?

Answer 185

• Exists when the diagnosis reflects known causes

* E.g. cause of disorder may be due to a problem w/ damage to a particular area of the brain

Question 186

What is Predictive Validity in Diagnosis?

Answer 186

• Future course of the disorder is known and can be applied to the person
• So, the diagnosis can be checked against the outcome to see if it’s valid

Question 187

What are Possible Factors that Impact on Validity of Diagnosis?

Answer 187

• Implicit bias in clinician as the beliefs of them mean that they arrive at an inaccurate diagnosis
• Patient may not disclose all info as they may be embarrassed or they don’t remember all details - so, clinician not able to arrive at an accurate diagnosis
• Interviews are subjective - producing findings that the clinician expects to find
• If the classification system is biased then diagnosis will not be valid

Question 188

What is the Evidence from Cochrane et al (1995) that Suggests that Diagnosis is Low in Validity?

Answer 188

• Blames classification systems used in Britain
• Argues that they lead practitioners to take on a Eurocentric bias
• So, they cannot take into account the normal behaviours of other cultures as they are based on European ideas

Question 189

What is the Evidence from Littlewood (1992) that Suggests that Diagnosis is Low in Validity?

Answer 189

• Questions international validity of DSM-5

* Suggests that the assumptions it makes about nuclear family life aren’t applicable to all cultures

Question 190

What is Implicit Bias in Diagnosis?

Answer 190

Positive or negative attitudes that a person may hold at an unconscious level

Question 191

What did David Rosenhan Suggest about Diagnosis?

Answer 191

• Diagnosis was not accurate
• Being given a psychiatric diagnosis would negatively affect a persons life
• As, they would be left with a psychiatric label which others could judge them negatively on + misinterpret their behaviour

Question 192

What was the Aim of the Classic Study 1 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 192

• See if psychiatrists could differentiate between sane + insane people
• Investigate life for patients in psychiatric hospitals
• Raise awareness about conditions in psychiatric hospitals

Question 193

Who were the Participants of the Classic Study 1 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 193

Hospital staff and patients

Question 194

What was the Method of the Classic Study 1 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 194

• Field experiment with participant observation
• Participant observation by 8 sane people (a student, 3 psychologists, a painter, housewife, psychiatrist, paediatrician)

Question 195

What was the Independent Variable of the Classic Study 1 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 195

Symptoms (lack of symptoms)

Question 196

What was the Dependent Variable of the Classic Study 1 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 196

Diagnosis they’re given

Question 197

What was the Procedure of the Classic Study 1 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 197

• Phoned 12 psychiatric hospitals giving a false name + address •All complained of hearing unclear voices saying “hollow, empty, thud” - chose these words as they aren’t associated with a particular disorder
• Apart from hearing voices, the pseudo patients behaved normally
• Once admitted, they stopped simulating any symptoms + took part in ward activities -took notes of their experiences in the hospital
• They had daily visitors who found that they were acting normally

Question 198

What were the Results of the Classic Study 1 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 198

• All admitted to hospital + all but 1 diagnosed with schizophrenia
• Normal behaviour was misinterpreted - writing notes described as “patient engaged in writing behaviour”, arriving early for lunch described as “oral acquisitive syndrome”
• No staff suspected that they were sane
• Average stay in hospital was 19 days, shortest stay = 7 days, longest stay= 52 days
• Given a total of 2100 medication tablets
• 35/119 real patient has voiced their suspicions about the pseudo patients
• Nurses stayed in ward offices 90% of the time, each real patient spent less than seven minutes per day with psychiatric staff + patients treated with no respect

Question 199

What was the Conclusion of the Classic Study 1 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 199

• Psychiatrist couldn’t detect sanity
• The psychiatric hospitals weren’t useful for people with mental disorders
• Diagnostic labels change the perception of the person so that all their behaviour was in interpreted within the context of the label - lead to self-fulfilling prophecy as the person is treated in a way that is consistent with the label which confirms the validity of the label

Question 200

What was the Aim of the Classic Study 2 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 200

See if the hospitals who had been told they were going to be approached by pseudo patients would be able to tell the sane from insane people

Question 201

What was the Procedure of the Classic Study 2 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 201

• A teaching + psychiatric hospital was informed that over the next 3 months 1 or more pseudo patients were trying to get admitted to their hospital
• Each staff member was asked to write the likelihood that the patients who sought to be admitted were pseudo patience
• In reality, no pseudo patients were admitted
• Staff members rated new patients on a scale of 1 to 10 as ‘how likely to be a fraud’, where 193 patients were assessed

Question 202

What were the Results of the Classic Study 2 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 202

• 41/193 rated as pseudo patient by at least 2 members of staff
• 23/193 rated as pseudo patient by at least 1 psychiatrist
• 19/193 rated as pseudo patient by a psychiatrist + 1 other member of staff

Question 203

What were the Conclusions of the Classic Study 2 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 203

• The staff were unable to detect insanity

* This confirmed Rosenhan’s initial results that there is poor validity in the diagnosis process

Question 204

What was the Aim of the Classic Study 3 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 204

Investigate patient/staff contact

Question 205

What was the Procedure of the Classic Study 3 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 205

• In 4 of the hospitals, pseudo patients asked a member of staff when they will be eligible for ground privileges
• Avoided asking the same member of staff more than once a day
• Rosenhan compared responses given to the patients to those given to a student at Stanford university

Question 206

What were the Results of the Classic Study 3 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 206

• 71% psychiatrists ignore + 4% stop and talk
• 88% nurses ignore + 0.5% stop and talk
• But, 0% faculty at the Uni ignore + 100% stop and talk

Question 207

What was the Conclusion of the Classic Study 3 by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 207

• Psychiatric patients are treated differently to non-psychiatric patients
• Patients are powerless while on the mental ward
• Lack of eye contact between staff + patients depersonalises the patients

Question 208

What is Depersonalisation?

Answer 208

Where people aren’t treated as unique individuals, worthy of respect

Question 209

How was the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973) High in Generalisability?

Answer 209

• Study took place in a range of hospitals
• 12 hospitals across the USA
• So, the results are generalisable to the USA of 1960s

Question 210

How was the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973) Low in Generalisability?

Answer 210

• Sample was very small and was unrepresentative - only 12 hospitals
• May not generalise outside the USA as there may be cultural differences
• May not generalise to current times

Question 211

How was the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973) High in Reliability?

Answer 211

• Certain aspects were standardised
• E.g. All pseudo patients presented with the same single symptom of hearing voices saying “hollow, empty thud”
• All pseudo patients behaved normally as soon as they’re admitted to hospital + said they didn’t have symptoms
• Questions asked by pseudo patients and controls were standardised

Question 212

How was the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973) Low in Reliability?

Answer 212

• It was a field experiment
• Variables such as patient-staff interactions couldn’t be standardised
• So, research couldn’t be repeated in a consistent way
• Study used participant observation so this is low reliability - as participant observers find it difficult to observe all details + may get distracted or over-involved

Question 213

What were the Applications for the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 213

• Highlighted danger of labelling
• People recognise that hospitals may not be the best place to treat mental illness
• Reduce abuse of power in mental institutions by staff (e.g. CCTV)
• Number of criteria used to diagnose mental illness increased - diagnosis now more accurate/valid, as a diagnosis of schizophrenia cannot rely on only 1 symptom

Question 214

How was the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973) High in Validity?

Answer 214

• High ecological validity
• Pseudo patients able to gather 1st-hand data about the treatment of the patients
• Setting (hospital) + tasks (hospital activities, life as a patient) are true to life
• Process of being admitted to hospital, interactions with staff, discharge + experience of life in a hospital was true
• Covert observation increases validity as reduces demand characteristics - nurses + doctors likely to act as they normally would

Question 215

How was the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973) Low in Validity?

Answer 215

• Low ecological validity
• Lack of control is due to nature of research (field experiment) - so, impossible to standardise things such as patients/staff interactions or reactions of other patients
• Observer bias may reduce validity - Rosenhan had strong opinions about psychiatry + the medical model - his opinions may have influenced his observations

Question 216

How was the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973) Ethical?

Answer 216

• Raised awareness of poor conditions in psychiatric hospitals
• Confidential - names of individual doctors/nurses were not published

Question 217

How was the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973) Unethical?

Answer 217

• Hospital staff deceived
• No consent given
• No right to withdraw
• Participants didn’t know they were part of the study
• No protection of other patients - staff are wasting time on pseudo patients instead of looking after genuinely ill people
• No protection - undermine confidence of doctors + nurses

Question 218

What is the Issue and Debate of the Use of Psychology in Social Control in the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 218

• Labelling behaviours as abnormal leads to diagnosis, which pathologies the behaviour
• Those in anti-psychiatry movement would argue that this forces people to conform to the standards set by society + if they don’t then they must receive treatment that will normalise their behaviour
• Argued that if we don’t label the behaviour as abnormal than people would be free to behave how they like
• E.g. in Rosenhan’s research - pseudo patients were treated for schizophrenia with tablets for their ‘symptoms’

Question 219

What is the Issue and Debate of Psychology as a Science in the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 219

• Field experiment so lack of controls - e.g. standardisation reduces reliability
• Low validity - participant observation means that there is observer bias - e.g. Rosenhan had strong opinions about medical model
• Mainly qualitative data (pseudo patients experience) reduces scientific status
• Covert observations increase validity as demand characteristics are reduced

Question 220

What is the Issue and Debate of How Psychological Understanding has Changed over Time in the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 220

• When Rosenhan’s pseudo patients were incorrectly diagnosed with schizophrenia, the classification system in use was the DSM 11, which didn’t use a criterion based system for diagnosis
• Currently the DSM-5 + ICD 10 give very specific symptoms which means that diagnosis should be both more reliable (consistent between clinicians) and more accurate

Question 221

What is the Issue and Debate of the Use of Psychological Knowledge in Society in the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 221

• More respect for patients
• More validity of diagnosis - criterion based system
• Awareness of the dangers of labelling
• Recognition that hospitals aren’t necessarily the best place to treat mental illness - move to care in the community

Question 222

How can Individual Differences be Linked to the Diagnosing of Mental Disorders?

Answer 222

• Different people may react differently to practitioners
• Different people may show different symptoms - e.g. different hallucinations, different levels of distress + dysfunction

Question 223

How can Developmental Psychology be Linked to the Diagnosing of Mental Disorders?

Answer 223

Schizophrenia usually develops in a persons late teens/early 20s, after an apparently normal childhood

Question 224

What is the Issue and Debate of Socially Sensitive Research in the Classic Study by Rosenhen (1973)?

Answer 224

• Studying mental health issues is socially sensitive research
• Involving labelling people with an illness in order to investigate treatment
• Rosenhan able to provide an account of the quality of care in psychiatric hospitals
• But, Spitzer criticised the study as sensationalist + causing harm to the psychiatric profession by casting doubt on the treatment of mental health

Question 225

What is Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

Answer 225

• An anxiety disorder
• Causing distress and has a major impact on the patient’s functioning
• Characterised by the presence of obsessions and/or compulsions

Question 226

What are Obsessions in OCD?

Answer 226

Persistent, irrational, unwanted thoughts

Question 227

What are Examples of Common Obsessions in OCD?

Answer 227

• Afraid of hurting themselves
• Afraid of hurting others
• Unwanted sexual thoughts, images, or urges
• Contaminated or contaminating someone else
• Fear of not having done a specific act that could result in harm

Question 228

What are Compulsions in OCD?

Answer 228

• Tasks that people do to relieve themselves of the obsessions
• The person feels driven to perform these tasks
• This makes them feel less anxious or distressed
• They can be mental or physical
• They are extreme beyond reason or they are not realistically connected with what they are meant to stop

Question 229

What are Examples of Common Compulsions in OCD?

Answer 229

• Cleaning or washing
• Checking that you haven’t made a mistake
• Ordering or arranging things in a particular way
• Repeated checking behaviours

Question 230

People with OCD may have a Tic Disorder, What are Examples of this?

Answer 230

• Eye blinking
• Facial grimacing
• Shoulder shrugging
• Head jerking
• Repeated clearing of the throat, sniffing, or grunting sounds

Question 231

What is the OCD cycle?

Answer 231

• Starts with obsessions
• Which causes strong feelings of anxiety - the person feels compelled to act + remove the discomfort
• So, compulsions occur as a result
• Leading to a feeling of relief from the anxiety
• But, the obsessive response has been strengthened for the future

Question 232

What is the 5 Diagnostic Criteria for OCD listed by the DSM-5?

Answer 232

• Obsessions cannot be ignored/suppressed + cause anxiety
• Obsessions and compulsions are time-consuming - they take up more than 1 hour per day
• Symptoms cannot be explained by substance use, another medical condition or mental disorder
• Clinician determine if individual has fair or poor insight into the disorder, recognising that their obsessive compulsive beliefs are not true or if they have poor insight, true
• Find out if the individual has a current or past history of a tic disorder

Question 233

What are the Onset Features of OCD?

Answer 233

• The age of onset is late teens + early 20s

* But, in 25% of male sufferers, it is before the age of 10

Question 234

What are the Prevalence Features of OCD?

Answer 234

• The prevalence rate is between 1.1 and 1.8% of the population
• In adults, OCD is more common in females
• In children, OCD is more common in males

Question 235

What are the Prognosis Features of OCD?

Answer 235

• Symptoms develop gradually but they can be extreme
• 70% of people experience a chronic and lifelong course
• 5% have episodic symptoms
• But, the content of obsessions doesn’t determine prognosis

Question 236

What are Factors Associated with a Good Prognosis in OCD?

Answer 236

• Milder symptoms
• Brief duration of symptoms
• Good functioning before full onset

Question 237

What are the Risk Factor Features of OCD?

Answer 237

• Family history - having a family member w/ the disorder can increase the risk of developing OCD
• Stressful life events - people who have experienced traumatic or stressful events have an increased risk of getting OCD

Question 238

How does the Issue and Debate of Individual Differences Link to the Features of OCD?

Answer 238

• Everyone doesn’t necessarily develop the same symptoms - cultural differences, males + females differ in symptoms/features
• Not everyone responds to treatment in the same way
• Genetic + environment factors can affect a persons risk of developing OCD

Question 239

How does the Issue and Debate of Culture + Gender Link to the Features of OCD?

Answer 239

• Females + males are diagnosed differently depending whether they are a child or adult
• OCD occurs across cultures at a similar rate, show a similar age at onset + show similar structure of symptoms
• But, there are cultural differences in how some of these symptoms can be expressed

Question 240

What are Examples of the Symptoms of OCD?

Answer 240

• Current or past history of tic disorder can affect severity of disorder
• Obsessions cannot be ignored or suppressed
• Obsessions + compulsions consume at least 1 hour per day + have a great impairment to daily life

Question 241

What are Examples of the Features of OCD?

Answer 241

• Risk is higher for people with higher negative emotionally
• In adults, OCD is more common in females
• The prevalence rate is between 1.1 and 1.8% of the population

Question 242

What did OCD-UK Suggest which provides Evidence for the Features of OCD?

Answer 242

OCD affects about 1.2% of the population

Question 243

What did Grohol (2005) Suggest which provides Evidence for the Features of OCD?

Answer 243

Suggest about 2.3% of US population has OCD in one year

Question 244

What did Sasson et al (1994) Suggest which provides Evidence for the Features of OCD?

Answer 244

Estimates that about 2% of people have OCD worldwide

Question 245

What are the 2 Explanations of the Causes of OCD?

Answer 245

• Biological explanation

* Cognitive explanation

Question 246

What does the Biological Explanation for the Causes of OCD Suggest?

Answer 246

Neuro-circuitry in the brain is not working correctly

Question 247

What is the Thalamus which Relates to the Biological Explanation for the Causes of OCD Suggest?

Answer 247

• Contains primitive checking + cleaning behaviours hardwired in the brain
• If this is overactive, it triggers a compulsion to engage in these behaviours

Question 248

What is the Orbitofrontal Cortex which Relates to the Biological Explanation for the Causes of OCD Suggest?

Answer 248

• Alerts the brain to potential worries in the environment

* If overactive, the person would experience anxiety

Question 249

What is the Cingulate Nuclei which Relates to the Biological Explanation for the Causes of OCD Suggest?

Answer 249

Connect the orbitofrontal cortex to the thalamus

Question 250

How do the Brain Structures Relate to the Biological Explanation for the Causes of OCD Suggest?

Answer 250

• Basal ganglia malfunctions
• So, thalamus becomes overactive, causing compulsions to occur - so cleaning + checking behaviours are more likely
• Overactive thalamus causes a cascade reaction in the orbitofrontal cortex, then this becomes overactive
• Orbitofrontal cortex alerts the brain when something seems odd, causing anxiety which leads to the obsessions in OCD

Question 251

What is the Basal Ganglia which Relates to the Biological Explanation for the Causes of OCD Suggest?

Answer 251

• Aims to inhibit the thalamus
• If not working properly, it can’t inhibit the thalamus
• Thalamus becomes overactive, causing compulsions to occur

Question 252

What are the Strengths for the Biological Explanation for OCD?

Answer 252

• A lot of supporting evidence
• Brain scans show differences in brain structures + functioning between people who have OCD + healthy controls
• High scientific credibility - brain scans are a scientific way of investigating OCD + many studies of brain activity have come up with similar findings
• Surgical reasoning of the cingulate gyrus has been used as treatment for OCD - so, it’s correct that OCD result from faulty feedback loop between thalamus + orbitofrontal cortex - since breaking the loop can cure OCD

Question 253

What are the Limitations for the Biological Explanation for OCD?

Answer 253

• It’s reductionist - doesn’t fully explain OCD -surgery sometimes doesn’t work as OCD is more complex than this theory suggests
• Difficult to show cause+effect - differences in brain activity in people with OCD may be a symptom of their OCD rather than the cause
• Brain activity + thoughts are related, so can’t say if brain activity altered the thoughts or the thoughts altered the brain activity as they cannot be separated
• Support for the biological link comes from genetic link as it suggests that physiological factors underlie the development of the disorder in many people - e.g. twin studies

Question 254

How does the Issue and Debate of Reductionism Relate to the Biological Explanation of OCD?

Answer 254

• Isolating mental health to biological processes in the brain simplifies a complex behaviour
• This may not be an appropriate way to view mental disorders

Question 255

How does the Issue and Debate of Psychology as a Science Relate to the Biological Explanation of OCD?

Answer 255

• Use of brain imaging helps investigate relationship between brain structures + behaviour
• It’s very scientific + adds reliability to the findings
• This increases the scientific credibility of the theory

Question 256

How does the Issue and Debate of Individual Differences Relate to the Biological Explanation of OCD?

Answer 256

• Some people have a family heredity risk, but some don’t
• Some people respond to surgery, but some don’t
• People suffering from OCD can develop different individualised symptoms

Question 257

How does the Issue and Debate of Nature vs Nurture Relate to the Biological Explanation of OCD?

Answer 257

• Supports the nature side of the debate - as it looks at structure + functioning of the brain and is supported by genetic factors
• But, the concordance rate in MZ twins was not 100% for OCD, so it is not a full exclamation

Question 258

How does the Evidence from Menzies (2007) Support the Biological Explanation for OCD?

Answer 258

• Brain scans show differences in brain structure
• Found that people suffering from OCD had a different amount of grey matter in orbitofrontal cortex to those without OCD

Question 259

How does the Evidence from Whiteside et al (2004) Support the Biological Explanation for OCD?

Answer 259

• Brain scans show differences in brain functioning between people who have OCD + healthy controls
• In patients with OCD, the cingulate gyrus, basal ganglia + orbitofrontal cortex are active when at rest - they become more active as OCD symptoms are stimulated

Question 260

How does the Evidence from Salloway + Duffy (2002) Support the Biological Explanation for OCD?

Answer 260

Found that PET scans of OCD patients had increased activity in the prefrontal cortex

Question 261

How does the Evidence from McGuire et al (1994) Support the Biological Explanation for OCD?

Answer 261

• When people w/ OCD are shown objects that bring on their symptoms
• There is an increase in activity in the orbitofrontal cortex + caudate nucleus

Question 262

How does the Evidence from Feng (2007) Support the Biological Explanation for OCD?

Answer 262

• He bread mice to show symptoms consistent with OCD (excessive grooming + anxious behaviour) when a targeted gene is missing
• This gene is associated with planning + initiation of action
• Showing a link to formation of compulsions
• Genetic explanation for OCD can be used to support the wider biological explanation in general

Question 263

How does the Evidence from Van Grootheest et al (2005) Support the Biological Explanation for OCD?

Answer 263

Found from a review of 70 studies that the concordance rates for MZ twins was between 27 to 47%, which is higher than for DZ twins

Question 264

How does the Evidence from Carey + Gottesman (1981) Support the Biological Explanation for OCD?

Answer 264

Found 87% concordance rate in MZ twins for obsessive symptoms + features compared to 47% for DZ twins

Question 265

How does the Evidence from Kireev et al (2013) Challenge the Biological Explanation for OCD?

Answer 265

• OCD is more complex than this theory suggests

* He suggests that the functions usually performed by the cingulate gyrus can be taken over by other areas of the brain

Question 266

How does the Cognitive Explanation Explain Behaviour in General?

Answer 266

• Thoughts lead to emotions

* Which in turn trigger behaviours

Question 267

What does the Cognitive Explanation for OCD Look at?

Answer 267

The role that thoughts play in the disorder

Question 268

What does the Cognitive Explanation for OCD Suggest?

Answer 268

• It is the thought processes of people that explain OCD

* As, people who suffer from OCD have obsessive thoughts

Question 269

What are the 5 Beliefs that Researchers Suggest are Important in the Development and Maintenance of Obsessions in the Cognitive Explanation for OCD?

Answer 269

• Tendency to overestimate the likelihood of danger
• Exaggerated responsibility that 1 is responsible for preventing misfortunes
• Belief that certain thoughts are very important + should be controlled
• Belief that someone having a thought or urge will increase the chances that it will come true
• Belief that 1 should always be perfect + mistakes are unacceptable

Question 270

What are the 3 Ways that the Cognitive Explanation Explains OCD?

Answer 270

• People with OCD misinterpret their thoughts, due to false beliefs
• OCD is due to memory problems
• OCD sufferers may be hypervigilant

Question 271

How can the Cognitive Explanation Explain OCD in terms of Misinterpreted Thoughts due to False Beliefs?

Answer 271

• Individuals prone to developing OCD exaggerate the thought + respond as if it was a real threat
• Causing high level of anxiety + guilt
• People interpreting intrusive thoughts as catastrophic will believe that thinking holds truth + will be distressed, so they practice ritual behaviours
• People who fear their own thoughts attempt to neutralise feelings by avoiding situations and engaging in rituals
• The anxiety produced by the thoughts lead to the compulsive behaviours seen in OCD

Question 272

Why do People Attach Exaggerated Danger to Their Thoughts in the Cognitive Explanation for OCD in terms of Misinterpreted Thoughts due to False Beliefs?

Answer 272

Because of false beliefs learned earlier in life

Question 273

How can the Evidence from Sher et al (1989) Show that the Cognitive Explanation Explains OCD in terms of Memory Problems?

Answer 273

Found that people with OCD had poor memories for their actions

Question 274

How can the Evidence from Trivedi (1996) Show that the Cognitive Explanation Explains OCD in terms of Memory Problems?

Answer 274

• Found people suffering from OCD had low confidence in their memory ability
• Also, their non-verbal memory was impaired

Question 275

How can the Evidence from Woods et al (2002) Show that the Cognitive Explanation Explains OCD in terms of Memory Problems?

Answer 275

• He conducted a meta-analysis

* Found that patients with OCD had slightly worse memories for recalling stimuli

Question 276

How can the Cognitive Explanation Explain OCD in terms of Hypervigilance?

Answer 276

• They have attentional bias, so they’re overly sensitive to threat
• They use rapid eye movement to scan the environment + attend selectively to threat related stimuli
• So, they feel very anxious
• The threat perceived become the basis of their obsessions
• The compulsive behaviours are designed to reduce their anxiety

Question 277

How can the Case Study from Rachman (2004) Show that the Cognitive Explanation Explains OCD in terms of Hypervigilance?

Answer 277

• Female patient had severe fear of diseases
• Had catastrophic thoughts about the probability of harm
• She overestimated the seriousness of contact with anyone
• When in public she rapidly scanned the environment + people on the lookout for evidence of blood
• Her hypervigilant scanning meant that she could recall the blood related items she had encountered over many years

Question 278

How can the Evidence from Williams et al (1997) Show that the Cognitive Explanation Explains OCD in terms of Hypervigilance?

Answer 278

Suggested that OCD sufferers suffer from hypervigilance, so they have an attentional bias + become very anxious

Question 279

How can the Evidence from Van Balkom et al (1996) Support the Cognitive Explanation for OCD?

Answer 279

• Found that therapy based on the cognitive explanation was as affective as drug treatment
• This supports the cognitive theory because if OCD were purely biological, then the biological treatment should work better than the cognitive treatment

Question 280

What are the Strengths of the Cognitive Explanation for OCD?

Answer 280

• Backed up with supporting evidence - which gives it scientific credibility
• Therapy based on the cognitive explanation has been successful as a treatment for OCD
• Cognitive biases (hypervigilance) give a good account of individual differences in susceptibility to OCD - the cognitive approach is easily adapted to individuals’ unique symptoms

Question 281

What are the Limitations of the Cognitive Explanation for OCD?

Answer 281

• Reductionist - it ignores the role of biology + learning in the development of faulty cognitions
• Doesn’t prove a cause+effect link - doesn’t show that the faulty cognitions are the cause of OCD, instead they could be a symptom - If the cognitive model was complete, treatments would always be useful

Question 282

How does the Issue and Debate of Comparisons Between Ways of Explaining Behaviour Using Different Themes Relate to the Cognitive Explanation for OCD?

Answer 282

• OCD can be considered from a biological point of view + also a cognitive point of you
• Both approaches have different strengths and weaknesses

Question 283

How does the Issue and Debate of Nature vs Nurture Relate to the Cognitive Explanation for OCD?

Answer 283

• Everyone may have similar biological structures in common with people, but no one is exactly the same
• Menzies (2007) provides biological support
• Trivedi (1996) provides cognitive support
• Interactive effect which causes OCD, as the brain is shaped by its environment + the environment is shaped by the brain of the person experiencing it

Question 284

What are the 2 types of treatment for OCD?

Answer 284

• Drug treatment

* Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

Question 285

When is drug treatment most commonly used as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 285

When cognitive behavioural therapy doesn’t work

Question 286

How do Antidepressants as a type of drug treatment work to treat OCD?

Answer 286

• They raise serotonin levels
• By blocking it’s reuptake from the synapse back into the releasing neurone
• So, more serotonin is available for longer

Question 287

What are Examples of Antidepressants as a type of drug treatment that work to treat OCD?

Answer 287

• Fluoxetine

* Sertraline (SSRI - selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor)

Question 288

How long does it take for Antidepressants as a type of drug treatment to work to treat OCD?

Answer 288

• Up to 12 weeks for drugs to be effective

* But, some people don’t respond to medication

Question 289

How do Anti Anxiety Drugs as a type of drug treatment work to treat OCD?

Answer 289

• Increasing the effectiveness of GABA in regulating anxiety

* GABA lowers physiological arousal + returns body to a resting state

Question 290

What are Examples of Anti Anxiety Drugs as a type of drug treatment that work to treat OCD?

Answer 290

• They’re called benzodiazepines

* E.g. Valium

Question 291

How do Beta Blockers as a type of drug treatment work to treat OCD?

Answer 291

• Block the stress hormone that are released into the bloodstream by adrenal glands
• They prevent this physiological response (e.g. increased heart rate) from occurring
• They feel less stressed, so they have fewer obsessional thoughts + less compulsive behaviour

Question 292

What are Examples of Beta Blockers as a type of drug treatment that work to treat OCD?

Answer 292

Propranolol

Question 293

What are the Strengths of Drug Treatment for OCD?

Answer 293

• It’s useful - as it can be used to treat cases of OCD which have not responded to CBT
• There’s empirical evidence to show that drug treatment can be effective in OCD - e.g. Soomro (2007) - there’s scientific credibility
• Drug treatment can be combined with CBT which may raise the effectiveness of CBT
• Modern drug therapy with psychological therapy has reduced the need to resort to neurosurgery which was unethical

Question 294

What are the Weaknesses of Drug Treatment for OCD?

Answer 294

• Drug treatments alone cannot treat most people with OCD
• Lasts for 12 months before medication can be reduced or discontinued
• May increase the patient’s anxiety
• Can cause side-effects (e.g. nausea + headaches) - limiting the usefulness of drugs as people don’t want to take them
• Can relapse if treatment is stopped
• There’s individual differences in the way that people respond to drugs
• Have to be sensitive to individual differences

Question 295

How does the Finding Soomro et al (2007) of Support the use of Drug Treatment for OCD?

Answer 295

Found that antidepressants were more effective than placebo in reducing the symptoms of OCD

Question 296

How does the Finding of POTS (2004) Support the use of Drug Treatment for OCD?

Answer 296

Drug treatment can be combined with CBT and has been shown to raise the effectiveness of CBT

Question 297

How does the Finding of Koran et al (2002) Support the use of Drug Treatment for OCD?

Answer 297

• Antidepressant medication did have long-term affects compared to a placebo
• It was effective at preventing relapse over an 80 week trial

Question 298

How does the Finding of Ravizza et al (1995) Challenge the use of Drug Treatment for OCD?

Answer 298

SSRIs were not effective for 40% of people

Question 299

How does the Finding of Brody et al (1998) Challenge the use of Drug Treatment for OCD?

Answer 299

Differences in the metabolism in the right compared to the left orbitofrontal cortex predicts whether a person will respond better to drugs or CBT

Question 300

How does the Finding of Goodman et al (1993) Challenge the use of Drug Treatment for OCD?

Answer 300

• Prescribing drugs to patients, needs to be tailored to individual needs
• Especially important with patients with refractory OCD
• E.g. may be given a combination of SSRI drug with an antipsychotic drug

Question 301

What is Refractory OCD?

Answer 301

OCD that is very difficult to treat

Question 302

What are the 2 components of CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 302

• Cognitive component

* Behavioural component

Question 303

What does the Cognitive Component of CBT focus on as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 303

• Changing thought processes

* Helping people to deal with obsessions found in OCD

Question 304

What does the Behavioural Component of CBT focus on as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 304

Changing actions/behaviours

Question 305

What are people encouraged to do in CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 305

Focus on their thoughts, and emotional + behavioural responses to those thoughts

Question 306

What is the aim of the cognitive component in CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 306

Change the beliefs that they trigger

Question 307

How does the Cognitive component in CBT start as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 307

• Start with thoughts that are least anxiety provoking

* Client encouraged to test the beliefs that the thoughts activate until they don’t generate anxiety

Question 308

How is cognitive distortion of Catastrophing addressed in CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 308

• Person predicts a negative outcome

* Then, jump to the conclusion that if the negative outcome did happen, it would be a catastrophe

Question 309

What is Habituation Training (Franklin et al 2000) in the Cognitive component of CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 309

• Client thinks repeatedly about their obsessive thoughts
• By deliberately thinking about obsessions, they’ll become less anxiety provoking
• With the consequence that compulsive behaviour is not required to reduce high levels of anxiety

Question 310

What is the most common Behavioural therapy used as a part of CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 310

Exposure and response prevention therapy (ERPT)

Question 311

What does ERPT focus on in the Behavioural component of CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 311

The compulsions found in OCD

Question 312

What is ERPT in the Behavioural component of CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 312

• Exposes clients to objects/situations that cause anxiety
• Requires the client to resist performing the compulsive behaviour
• The therapist helps the person develop ways in which they can resist performing the compulsive behaviours

Question 313

What are the steps involved in ERPT in the Behavioural component of CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 313

• Informing clients about exposure + response prevention, and what therapy involves
• Using exposure hierarchy - starting with mildly anxiety raising situations + goes to the highest level of anxiety
• Repeated exposure to situations that cause high anxiety, until anxiety reduces
• Getting the client to resist from performing the compulsive behaviour

Question 314

What are Clients in ERPT in the Behavioural component of CBT asked to do outside of therapy as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 314

Practice exposing themselves to feared situations + reframing from the compulsive behaviour

Question 315

How does the finding from Franklin et al (2005) support ERPT in the Behavioural component of CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 315

• After ERPT, clients showed between 55% and 75% improvement

* The improvement lasts for 5 to 6 years

Question 316

What are the Strengths of CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 316

• Supported by evidence which shows that it’s effective in reducing the symptoms of OCD
• Doesn’t have any side-effects
• Has lower relapse rates than medication
• Ethical form of treatment - patients are empowered as they are taught techniques which they can use on their own

Question 317

How does the Issue and Debate of Social Control link to CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 317

CBT empowers a patient - implying that they are less controlled by others in society

Question 318

How does the finding by NICE (2006) support CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 318

• CBT is endorsed by the National Institute for health and clinical excellence
• So, it’s effective in reducing symptoms of OCD

Question 319

What are the Weaknesses of CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 319

• Limited treatment which should ideally be used in combination with other forms of therapy
• Difficult to disentangle which of the benefits from CBT are due to the cognitive or behavioural component
• Individual differences means that therapy needs to be tailored to the needs of the particular person - can be ineffective
• ERPT wouldn’t be effective for clients that don’t have compulsions

Question 320

How does the finding of Masellis et al (2003) not support CBT as a type of treatment for OCD?

Answer 320

• Found that up to 44% of clients only suffer from obsessions
• Up to 75% had co-morbid depression, which lessons effects of ERPT
• So, ERPT may not be effective

Question 321

What is Relapse Rate?

Answer 321

Recurrence of their disorder/disease

Question 322

What are the Similarities between CBT and Drug Treatment as treatments for OCD?

Answer 322

• Both useful and effective as treatment for OCD

* Both have supporting evidence to show treatment is effective - drug treatment = Soomro (2007), CBT = NICE (2006)

Question 323

What are the Differences between CBT and Drug Treatment as treatments for OCD?

Answer 323

• CBT more ethical - it empowers patients as they’re taught techniques which they can use on their own + has lower relapse rate
• Individual differences
• Drug treatment with CBT combined as effective - POTS (2004)

Question 324

What is the Aim of the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 324

Compare 3 treatments to see which is most effective in treating young people w/ OCD:
•CBT on its own
•An SSRI (sertraline) on its own
•CBT + sertraline combined

Question 325

What was the Type of Sample used in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 325

• Volunteer sample
• All diagnosed using DSM-IV
• Study ran across 3 centres in the USA

Question 326

What were the Participants in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 326

• 112 participants
• All American
• 92% white
• Aged 7-17 years - average age of 11

Question 327

How was the Severity of the Participants’ Symptoms Measured in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 327

• A standardised test - the Children’s Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale
• Only those with a score of 16 or above on the scale were included

Question 328

Which Children were Excluded from the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 328

• Children who were comorbid w/ other disorders (e.g. Tourette’s)
• This would avoid interaction effects - to control confounding variables

Question 329

Why were children with ADHD required to be on stimulant medication + stable in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 329

To ensure that their ADHD wouldn’t affect the treatment for OCD

Question 330

Why were no children on anti-obsessional medication at the start of the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 330

• To ensure that any in the Ps was due to the treatments offered in the study
• Controlling confounding variables

Question 331

What were the 4 Conditions of the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 331

• Drugs only
• Placebo pill only
• CBT only
• CBT + drug treatment

Question 332

How were the children allocated to the Conditions in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 332

Randomly, using a computerised system

Question 333

How were the children assessed at the start of treatment of the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 333

• They were interviewed

* The baseline measure was taken using the CY-BOCS using independent evaluators

Question 334

How long did the Contemporary Study last by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 334

12 weeks

Question 335

Why did each child have a specialist psychiatrist assigned to them for the duration of the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 335

• To monitor their progress

* To provide them with support

Question 336

What was the Procedure for the Drugs only and Placebo conditions of the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 336

• Children attended weekly sessions for 6 weeks, then attended every other week (9 sessions in total)
• Dose established +changed during sessions
• Parents would monitor that children took their medication + kept a medication diary
• Any adverse reactions would result in the medication being changed or stopped

Question 337

How many sessions did the CBT group have in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 337

14 clinical sessions over the 12 week period

Question 338

What were the 4 Components in the CBT group of the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 338

• Psychological training
• Cognitive training
• Mapping OCD target symptoms
• Exposure + response ritual prevention

Question 339

What did each CBT session consist of for the CBT group in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 339

• Goal setting
• Review of the previous week
• Therapist assistant practice
• Homework
• Monitoring

Question 340

What was the Combined condition of the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 340

• Drugs and CBT in conjunction

* Sessions were time linked and provided simultaneously

Question 341

When were the Participants Assessed in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 341

At baseline, 4 weeks, 8 weeks, 12 weeks

Question 342

Who Assessed the Participants in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 342

Independent evaluators trained to a reliable standard

Question 343

How did the authors ensure the assessment was reliable in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 343

• Evaluators carefully trained

* Evaluation process was strictly supervised + reviewed

Question 344

How many of the original participants completed the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 344

97 out of 112

Question 345

What is CY-BOCS in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 345

Children’s Yale-Brown obsessive compulsive scale

Question 346

How was the progress of participants measured in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 346

• Looked at how much the participants improved on the CY-BOCS over the 12 week period
• Gathered quantitative data

Question 347

What does Remission mean?

Answer 347

Where the person has no signs + symptoms of the disorder

Question 348

How did the authors define ‘entering remission’ in the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 348

A drop below 10 on the CY-BOCS

Question 349

What were the Results of the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 349

• All conditions showed improvement at 12 weeks as measured on CY-BOCS, but placebo improvement wasn’t significant
• In CBT alone condition, 39.3% entered remission, compared to 21.4% in the drugs alone condition
• Combination treatment (drugs + CBT) was most effective in reducing symptoms

Question 350

What was the Conclusion of the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 350

• CBT lead to more improvements than drugs - so, should be the 1st line of treatment
• Drugs may compensate for less effective therapy, but minimal gain if CBT is effective
• Drugs require careful monitoring, as SSRI’s are linked to suicidal ideation in young people
• But, drug treatment was well tolerated
• Early intervention effective for children and young people with OCD

Question 351

How was the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD High in Generalisability?

Answer 351

• Large sample - 112 children + low dropout rate
• Representative of target population - young people w/ OCD
• Analysis of sample showed there was no difference in groups - so, any difference in group would be down to the IV

Question 352

How was the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD Low in Generalisability?

Answer 352

• Excluded children who were co-morbid
• Not generalisable to adults - Ps only aged 7-17 years
• Conducted in USA - may not be generalisable to non-western societies - as, other societies may respond differently to CBT and other medication

Question 353

How was the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD High in Reliability?

Answer 353

• The evaluators who assessed the children symptoms had been trained to a reliable standard
• The scale used to assess their symptoms was a standardised measure
• All participating centres (3) used the CBT manual in order to maintain consistency in treatment

Question 354

How was the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD Low in Reliability?

Answer 354

• This study was conducted over 3 centres, but 1 centre had better results on the CBT only condition
• This may be due to the therapist effect, as 1 therapist may have been more proficient at CBT than the others

Question 355

How did the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD have Useful Applications?

Answer 355

• Provides strong evidence about the most effective treatment for OCD in children + young people
• Shows value of clinical treatments - cause + effect
• Show usefulness of psychological therapies
• SSRI’s can lead to suicidal ideation in some individuals which needs to be taken into account
• Findings have shown effectiveness of CBT + sertraline combined - but individual differences mean therapies need to be tailored to the person

Question 356

How was the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD High in Ecological Validity?

Answer 356

• Study conducted over a long period of time - 12 weeks

* Studying people in their real life

Question 357

How was the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD High in Validity?

Answer 357

• The assessment scale (CY-BOCS) had been validated as an accurate measurement of OCD symptoms
• Ps randomly allocated into conditions - can infer cause-and-effect
• The assessors were blind to the condition that the Ps were in - so, they couldn’t be biased in the evaluation of improvements
• Ps in placebo condition were unaware that the drug wasn’t active, as was the therapist - this controlled for demand characteristics

Question 358

How was the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD Ethical?

Answer 358

• All Ps + 1 of their parents gave full written consent
• Volunteer sample - Ps wanted to do the study
• Each participant was assigned psychiatrist to monitor and support them
• Those in the drug treatment condition were regularly checked + dosages changed as necessary - protecting them from harm

Question 359

How was the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD Unethical?

Answer 359

• Use of deception in placebo condition
• But, this was necessary in order to ensure validity of the study
• Everyone in placebo condition was offered therapy on completion of the study

Question 360

How does the Issue and Debate of Practical Issues Relate to the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 360

• Could have problems with attrition - but, there is actually a low dropout rate
• Training of assesses to a reliable standard is costly and time-consuming
• Longitudinal study - carried out over 12 weeks = time-consuming + expensive
• There are difficulties in recruiting Ps w/ similar symptoms of OCD - but when tested, all groups are homogeneous
• Volunteer sample - Ps may be more motivated, so CBT results may be better than in the general population + didn’t have co-morbid Ps, so don’t know how effective for children with multiple issues

Question 361

How does the Issue and Debate of Reductionism Relate to the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 361

• Less reductionist as it looks a different treatments to explain OCD - cognitive, behavioural + medication
• So, more holistic
• But, it ignore social + environmental factors

Question 362

How does the Issue and Debate of Comparisons Between Ways of Explaining Behaviour using Different Themes Relate to the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 362

• Comparison of explanations + treatment for OCD
• CBT assumes faulty thinking
• Drug treatment assumes faulty brain functioning
• The study took account of different explanations

Question 363

How does the Issue and Debate of Psychology as a Science Relate to the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 363

• Drug treatment is objective - controls (e.g. evaluators + ADHD medication) - controlled confounding variables
• The children’s version of the Yale-Brown obsessive compulsion scale is standardised to give quantitative data that is objective - therefore, it’s scientific

Question 364

How does the Issue and Debate of Culture Relate to the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 364

• OCD occurs in most cultures, but POTS study can only be applied to children in the USA
• E.g. children were 92% white
• So, lacks cultural variety

Question 365

How does the Issue and Debate of Issues of Social Control Relate to the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 365

• OCD is distressing for the sufferer, so change may be in their best interest
• However, drug treatment may be criticised for trying to correct someone’s behaviour to go along with social norms

Question 366

How does the Issue and Debate of the Use of Psychological Knowledge within Society Relate to the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 366

• POTS gives treatment for OCD that’s effective
• This helps patients that suffer
• Leading to the relief of symptoms + helped them lead relatively normal lives

Question 367

How does the Issue and Debate of Issues Relating to Socially Sensitive Research Relate to the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 367

• Mental health is a sensitive issue
• Issues of abnormality - once labelled, it’s hard to get rid of that label
• From POTS - CBT is the 1st treatment that should be used + its socially acceptable

Question 368

How does the Issue and Debate of an Understanding of How Psychological Research has Developed Overtime Relate to the Contemporary Study by POTS (2004) for OCD?

Answer 368

• Practice changed as a result of POTS study
• Before 2004, CBT wasn’t routinely used for children - but, this study has helped change this
• So that CBT is now the 1st line of treatment that OCD, + shows that CBT and drug treatment are very effective in combination
• So, we are using less drastic measures like drugs with side-effects or brain surgery to help relieve OCD

Question 369

What is the Aim of Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing?

Answer 369

Study the usefulness of psycho education within group work for offender patients in a high security forensic hospital setting

Question 370

What were the Participants of Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing?

Answer 370

• 42 males
• Detained in Broadmoor high security hospital
• Most received a diagnosis of schizophrenia
• They were part of a program that aimed at helping them understand and cope with their illness

Question 371

What is the Method of Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing?

Answer 371

• Participants interviewed using a semistructured interview technique
• This was to understand their experience better + get info as to how the group could be improved in the future
• Group run for 20 sessions over a 3-year period
• Psycho education program considered symptoms, treatment options and coping mechanisms
• Then, a content analysis was conducted on the data gathered to pick out key themes in the responses

Question 372

What were the Key Themes Identified in the Data of Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing?

Answer 372

• What participants valued + why
• What was helpful about the group
• Clinical implications
• What was difficult/unhelpful about the group

Question 373

What were the Results of Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing?

Answer 373

• Patients valued knowing and understanding their illness
• Group sessions allowed them to understand their symptoms + how other peoples experiences were similar
• Increased confidence in dealing with illness, making them more positive about the future
• Patients valued the group + would recommend it

Question 374

What were the Conclusions of Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing?

Answer 374

• There were positive + negative changes in measures taken after psycho education group
• Qualitative data showed how Ps valued knowledge about their illness which gave them power
• So, semi-structured interviews are useful in gathering detailed rich data which can be used to inform future practice

Question 375

How is Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing Low in Generalisability?

Answer 375

• Ps very severe + had complex needs
• This is shown as they were in a high security institution
• So, can’t generalise the findings to another population

Question 376

How is Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing Low in Reliability?

Answer 376

• Semi structured interviews used - so, questionnaires are not standardised
• E.g. some questions weren’t standardised
• So, difficult to replicate

Question 377

How is Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing High in Reliability?

Answer 377

• Some questions were standardised- e.g. pre-post test scores
• Researchers recorded their interviews to allow them to play back + check accuracy of data
• So, they can also get other researchers to check the data, which increases interrater reliability

Question 378

What are the Applications for Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interview?

Answer 378

• Data can inform future practice

* Results showed that Ps did benefit from psycho educational program, as valued knowledge about illness

Question 379

How is Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing High in Validity?

Answer 379

• Semi structured interviews allowed more detailed data to be gained from patients
• Info from patients interviews allowed them to fully express their own point of view, helping the researchers to understand their perspective more clearly

Question 380

How is Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing Ethical?

Answer 380

• Ps allowed to withdraw from the study/request for their data not be included
• Ps gave consent

Question 381

How is Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing Unethical?

Answer 381

• Ps still vulnerable + not easy for them to refuse consent/withdraw from study
• Given confinement

Question 382

How do Individual Differences Relate to Valentine et al (2010) study which uses clinical interviewing?

Answer 382

• Different insight into their illness
• So, may respond differently to the programme from each other
• Usefulness of programme may not apply to everyone

Question 383

What is the Inductive Approach in Qualitative Data?

Answer 383

• Observing or analysing something

* Then, drawing a set of principles from it or a model of how things might be from the data

Question 384

What is the Deductive Approach in Qualitative Data?

Answer 384

• Researcher specifies themes they’ll search for
• Going from a theory to predict what might happen
• Using the data to test against the theory
• Starts with a hypothesis

Question 385

What is the Grounded Theory?

Answer 385

• A way of analysing qualitative data
• Finding theory from the data, the theory is grounded in the data
• This theory is analysed using the inductive method

Question 386

What is the Aim of the Grounded Theory?

Answer 386

• Retain the richness of the data
• Produce coding that captures those meaning in a manageable form
• Show new ways of understanding behaviour, including shared meanings between people

Question 387

What are the Stages of Grounded Theory?

Answer 387

• Coding is done
• Codes collected into concepts, which groups data together
• Concepts grouped into similarities and differences, theory starts to develop
• Theory comes from collecting the categories together, it’s about forming a model that can explain the data

Question 388

What are the Strengths of Grounded Theory?

Answer 388

• Rich + detailed data collected - showing new ways of understanding behaviours
• Able to develop a theory to explain the data - uses specific terms to explain how it’s done and is explicit in its guidance
• Theory should have high validity - as, evidence is integrated into the theory

Question 389

What are the Weaknesses of Grounded Theory?

Answer 389

•Low validity - if the data gathered to develop the theory was problematic
•Time-consuming to gather + analyse data
•Theory may be based on a subjective opinion - researchers may be biased in the way they interpret data
•Researchers may force data to support the theory - so, may miss crucial evidence that contradicts the concepts they believe
- as, they selectively sampling data as a theory begins to emerge

Question 390

What are the Strengths of Thematic Analysis?

Answer 390

• Flexible way of analysing qualitative data + doesn’t always need a theory to drive the analysis
• Maintains richness in data + summarising a large amount of qualitative data in a manageable way
• Allows insight into data which isn’t always anticipated by the researcher + yield more detailed and meaningful info than quantitative data

Question 391

What are the Weaknesses of Thematic Analysis?

Answer 391

• Hard to find themes in data that aren’t driven by the questions asked by the researcher in the interview
• Unscientific - themes are highly dependent on the subjective opinion of the researcher - so, can lead to researcher bias

Question 392

How does Thematic Analysis Take Place?

Answer 392

• Familiarise with data
• Generate codes
• Look for themes in codes
• Review the themes
• Define + name the themes
• Produce the report

Question 393

What are the different methods for researching mental health?

Answer 393

• The use of longitudinal methods
• The use of cross-sectional methods
• The use of cross-cultural methods
• The use of meta-analysis
• The use of primary and secondary data

Question 394

What is a way to explore the causes of mental health problems?

Answer 394

• Investigate impact of different treatment methods

* Find out how disorders progress in patients

Question 395

What is the use of longitudinal methods as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 395

• Takes place over a long period
• Involves comparing a sample group with their own performance overtime
• So, developmental changes can be seen through patterns of measurement

Question 396

What would the use of longitudinal methods as a method for researching mental health allow?

Answer 396

Psychologists to see if there is any reduction in the symptoms to help them to assess how effective the treatment is

Question 397

How are measurements taken in the use of longitudinal methods as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 397

How the symptoms present themselves over a time period at certain intervals

Question 398

What is the study of POTS (2004) as an example of the use of longitudinal methods as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 398

• Compared the use of CBT with the use of sertraline in children with OCD
• Study lasted for 12 weeks, patients assessed at weeks: 4, 8 and 12
• Showed change and development in OCD symptoms overtime

Question 399

What is the study of Sensky (2004) as an example of the use of longitudinal methods as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 399

• Compare that CBT vs befriending for schizophrenia
• Treatment lasted 9 months + patients assessed 9 months after treatment ended
• Found that CBT is effective in treating negative and positive symptoms in schizophrenia that are resistant to drugs

Question 400

What is the study of Meltzer (2004) as an example of the use of longitudinal methods as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 400

• A 6 week study that compared placebo, 4 new drugs + haloperidol
• Found that haloperidol was better than placebo in improving positive + negative symptoms of schizophrenia
• So, study showed change + development in schizophrenia

Question 401

What are the Strengths of the longitudinal method as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 401

• High validity - participant variables are controlled for - as, same Ps used
• High reliability - reliable way to measure the effect of time on behaviour - enabling clinicians to evaluate the effectiveness of treatments in terms of improving the quality of a patient’s life

Question 402

What are the Weaknesses of the longitudinal method as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 402

• Low validity- Ps may drop out, reducing the sample size
• May be factors which affect individuals development, making it hard to draw conclusions
• Take a long time + can be expensive
• By the time data can be used to draw conclusions in the study, the data may be irrelevant

Question 403

What is the use of cross-sectional methods as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 403

• Useful when researchers want to take a quick snapshot of behaviour in a given population in a set period of time
• Uses a large sample
• Conclusions are drawn from the data gathered

Question 404

What is the study of Luhrmann (2015) as an example of the use of cross-sectional methods as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 404

• The aim was to compare auditory hallucinations in the USA, India and Ghana
• It was an interview based study

Question 405

What are the Strengths of the cross-sectional method as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 405

• Data gathered quickly - so, conclusion can be drawn + acted on more rapidly
• High validity - results more likely to be valid, as they will be reported at the same time when they have most application
• Can be economical - as, it requires less commitment in terms of time from a researcher compared to the longitudinal design

Question 406

What are the Weaknesses of the cross-sectional method as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 406

• Not good for finding out the cause of something like a mental disorder as they’re descriptive research
• There might be a cohort effect - as, the study looks at different people at the same moment in time + those people will belong to a different cohort
• They’re unlikely to include any historical info about a patient, or info about the future - this is because they’re a snapshot

Question 407

What is Cohort Effect?

Answer 407

The difference in social and cultural groups that change with age and time

Question 408

What is Culture?

Answer 408

The way a group of people share their decisions + behaviour, such as sharing norms in society

Question 409

What is the use of cross-cultural methods as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 409

• Carried out by researchers who want to compare some behaviour or attitudes in different cultures - similarities + differences
• Universality can be studied - if a result is found in many different cultures, then it may be in our nature

Question 410

What are the Strengths of the cross-cultural method as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 410

• It identifies elements of abnormal behaviour that can be attributed to biological factors
• They aid clinicians understanding of the cultural factors they should consider when diagnosing + treating patients from different cultural groups
• Allows researcher to gain an understanding of how culture plays a role in the validity and reliability of diagnosis in clinical psychology

Question 411

What are the Weaknesses of the cross-cultural method as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 411

• In conducting research across cultures, there is likely to be a conflict between the cultures
• So, conclusions drawn may lack validity if the interpretation of the patient’s behaviour doesn’t consider their cultural background

Question 412

What is the study of Luhrmann (2015) as an example of the use of cross-cultural methods as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 412

• Found that Ps in the USA were more likely to report negative commands
• Whereas, patients from India + Ghana were more likely to report rich relationships with their voices

Question 413

What is the use of meta-analysis as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 413

• Using the findings of different studies - secondary data
• Findings are analysed
• Focuses on effect sizes

Question 414

How have meta-analysis as a method for researching mental health been used in clinical psychology?

Answer 414

To find out about the effectiveness of therapies and treatments across different patient groups

Question 415

What are the Strengths of the meta-analysis as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 415

• Conclusions drawn from a huge sample and different areas
• Results can be generalised to a larger population due to the large sample
• More data used - so, there is likely to be more precision in the analysis
• Quick and cost-effective
• Research generally focuses on using peer-reviewed publications - so, data has been scrutinised

Question 416

What are the Weaknesses of the meta-analysis as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 416

• Researchers don’t gather data directly - so, may be on identified issues of reliability + validity in the methods of data gathering
• Low validity due to publication bias
• E.g. research that produce null effects may not be published + therefore would be ignored by meta analysis

Question 417

What is the study of Carlsson (2000) as an example of the use of meta-analysis as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 417

• Used meta analysis in combining the results are various neurotransmitters studies
• To investigate the role of neurotransmitters including dopamine, serotonin and glutamate in schizophrenia

Question 418

What is the use of primary data as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 418

Gathered first-hand from source directly by researcher

Question 419

What is the use of secondary data as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 419

Data already gathered by others to use for future research

Question 420

What is the study by Rosenhan (1973) as an example of the use of primary data as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 420

Gathered primary data from first-hand observations

Question 421

What is the study by Lavarenne et al (2013) as an example of the use of primary data as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 421

Used data from one of the group sessions, which were primary data

Question 422

What is the study by Carlsson (2000) as an example of the use of secondary data as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 422

• The use of meta analysis/secondary data for neurotransmitter functioning
• E.g. studies w/ rodents, studies that used brain scans, studies on people w/ acute schizophrenia + people w/ schizophrenia in remission

Question 423

What is the study by Gottesman and Shields (1966) as an example of the use of secondary data as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 423

• Used secondary data for their twin studies

* E.g. hospital notes

Question 424

What are the Strengths of the primary data as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 424

• More credible than secondary data - as, they’re gathered for the purpose with chosen research method, design etc
• Operationalisation is done with research in mind, so there’s likely to be validity with regard to the aim

Question 425

What are the Strengths of the secondary data as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 425

• Cheap - as, data is already collected
• Can be large quantities of data, so there might be detail
• Can be from different sources - so, there is a possibility of comparing data to check for reliability + validity

Question 426

What are the Weaknesses of the primary data as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 426

• Expensive - as, data gathered from the start

* Limited to time, place and number of participants

Question 427

What are the Weaknesses of the secondary data as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 427

• When analysed originally, there may have been subjectivity
• Likely to be gathered to suit another aim, so may not be valid for the study
• May have been gathered some time before, so not in a relevant time period

Question 428

What are case studies as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 428

• Studying individuals or small groups with a unique characteristic or experience
• Often evidence gathered will be qualitative, allowing an in-depth analysis of the group
• Researchers triangulate the data to draw conclusions

Question 429

What are case studies in relation to clinical psychology as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 429

• Case studies may be of people with rare symptoms or individual taking part in a specific therapy
• A full understanding of the patient’s problems can be assessed + all the factors that may have an affect on them can be taken into account

Question 430

What was the aim of the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 430

• Investigate how CBT can be used to treat a woman with schizophrenia
• An attempt to use psychotherapy to treat schizophrenia where drug treatment had previous been preferred

Question 431

What was the procedure of the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 431

• Carol had 3 years of CBT + follows up her progress 6 months and a year after therapy
• Carol symptoms were measured on 4 scales: roll functioning scale (RFS), goal attainment scale (GAS), hospitalisation, global pathology index (GPI)
• Carol had three stages of treatment

Question 432

What was the 1st stage of Carols treatment in the procedure of the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 432

• Development of rapport - honest + trusting communication
• CBT sessions lasted for 15mins to 1hour
• Carol + therapist often went for a walk
• They shared their love of baseball

Question 433

What was the 2nd stage of Carols treatment in the procedure of the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 433

• Understanding CBT - took 2months
• Carol was educated in CBT, schizophrenia and treatment
• The focus was on improving ways of coping with stress
• The ABC model (Ellis, 1957) was used

Question 434

What was the treatment part in the procedure of the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 434

• 1st year - focus on managing anxiety + therapy was on faulty attributions
• A weekly activity schedule gave her structure after leaving the hospital - Carol recited what she did during the day to help therapist recognise signs of stress
• Middle phase - 16months of building more strategies to cope with stressful situations - e.g. the use of a ‘stress thermometer’ + the use of meditation
• End phase - 3months - Carol developed plants to maintain the treatment without therapist - e.g. she wrote cue cards w/ coping strategies

Question 435

What were the Results of the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 435

• Carol improved in psychosocial functioning, achievement of goals, reduction of symptoms, little distress + never re-hospitalised
• After 1 year - RFS was stable at 27, whereas at the start she scored 6
• At end of study - GPI score of 1 indicated that there were few symptoms present
• GAS increased from 19.85 to 80.15 - shows that treatment goals had been attained - goals were: starting a college course, taking a volunteer job + going out once a week w/ friends

Question 436

What was the Conclusion of the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health?

Answer 436

• Improved in Carols functioning in all 4 measures after a 3 year course of CBT - so, CBT can be successful in treating schizophrenia
• Bradshaw + Roseborough (2004) carried out a meta-analysis of case studies of 22 patients - they suggested that 86% improved their psychosocial functioning + 82% had reduced severity of symptoms - this supports CBT as an effective treatment for Schizophrenia

Question 437

How was the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health Low in Generalisability?

Answer 437

• Unusual case - Carol is much younger than most females with schizophrenia, comes from a supportive background + has no family history of mental illness
• She is female + the disorder presents differently in males
• Her type of schizophrenia (undifferentiated type) isn’t the only type of schizophrenia - CBT may not be affective with other types

Question 438

How was the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health Low in Reliability?

Answer 438

• Many details of the study are hard to replicate
• E.g. the rapport between Carol + her therapist
• Case study - can’t replicate the study in the exact same way

Question 439

How was the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health High in Reliability?

Answer 439

• CBT follows standard procedure by Aaron Beck
• The measures used (e.g. GAS, GPI, RFS) are well established tools by psychiatrists
• Carols symptoms were checked against DSM-IV
• The same measures used at start of study, 3x during therapy + 2x afterwards = test- retest reliability

Question 440

What were the Applications in the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental healthy?

Answer 440

• Promotes the use of CBT to help treat patients with schizophrenia
• So, clients lower their dependency on antipsychotic drugs (biological treatment/side-effects/compliance)
• But, treatment of CBT is only available to 10% of sufferers in the UK

Question 441

How was the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health High in Ecological Validity?

Answer 441

• Real patient receiving real treatment was used

* E.g. CBT and coping methods

Question 442

How was the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health High in External Validity?

Answer 442

• Supported by other case studies in the meta analysis - Bradshaw + Roseborough (2004)
• 86% improved psychosocial functioning and 82% had to reduce symptoms

Question 443

How was the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health High in Internal Validity?

Answer 443

• Use of scales to accurately measure her progress increases internal validity - e.g. GAS, GPI, RFS
• Gained quantitative data - e.g. her scores on RFS, GPI and GAS
• Gained qualitative data -e.g. her walks, volunteer job, change in self-esteem + view of herself with someone in the future
• Real changes are seen over a period of 4 years

Question 444

How was the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health Low in Internal Validity?

Answer 444

• All the clients were taking antipsychotic medication alongside CBT
• So, this could be the real reason there was improvement in the study which supported the case study of Carol

Question 445

How was the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health Ethical?

Answer 445

• Bradshaw respected the young woman’s dignity + privacy by concealing her real identity + using the pseudonym ‘Carol’ instead
• At the end of study, Carol was much healthier + could give full informed consent for her data to be used
• Her therapist developed rapport by being genuine + having empathy
• CBT helped her live a less stressful life as improvement was still in evidence a year after therapy
• Carol was empowered - using a stress thermometer + a pat on the back technique - allowed her to feel in control of her treatment

Question 446

How was the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health Unethical?

Answer 446

• There are issues of consent
• As, Carol was in too bad a state at the start of study to consent to share details of her progress with the researcher
• So, consent was obtained from family and therapist instead

Question 447

How was Carol described in the study by Bradshaw (1998) as an example of the use of case studies as a method for researching mental health Ethical?

Answer 447

•She was a good student, shy but with several friends
•But, when she started to experience hallucinations, she withdrew from people + acted in a bizarre manner
•She was hospitalised + diagnosed with
undifferentiated type schizophrenia using the DSM-IV

Question 448

How are Peer Reviews Effective?

Answer 448

• It helps to maintain standards within that area of research
• It can attract funding

Question 449

How can Peer Reviews be Criticised?

Answer 449

• The actual findings may not be relevant by the time it’s published
• There are practical issues - peer review can involve many amendments, so may be costly + take a long time
• Some research is never published - as, research with null findings isn’t published - there is a publication bias for positive outcomes, leading to a distorted view of a subject area