Cream Pack Flashcards
1
Q
What is a Confederate?
A
A person who takes part in the research but is not a true participant
2
Q
What is the Aim of the BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct (2009)?
A
It provides ethical standards which apply to all psychologists
3
Q
What are the reasons why ethical issues must be considered in psychological research?
A
- To ensure the professional reputation of psychology is high
- To protect human participants from mental and physical harm
4
Q
What is the underlying philosophical approach of the BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct (2009)?
A
‘Do unto others as you would be done’
5
Q
What does the underlying philosophical approach of the BPS code of ethics and conduct mean for psychologists actually carrying out research on human participants?
A
- Ensure safety of human participants so no harm is done
- Maintain high standards of confidentiality because if they wouldn’t like it done to themselves, they shouldn’t do it to others
6
Q
What are the 4 main ethical principles of the BPS code of ethics and conduct (2009)?
A
- Respect
- Competence
- Responsibility
- Integrity
7
Q
What are the advantages of following ethical guidelines when carrying out psychological research on humans?
A
- Society’s moral standards are maintained - psychologists must adhere to professional values if society is to see their research as having credibility + status
- Ps protected from physical harm
- Maintains reputation of the discipline + profession
- Ethical problems in study won’t get in the way of research being replicated
8
Q
What are the disadvantages of following ethical guidelines when carrying out psychological research on humans?
A
- Understanding of human behaviour is restricted - as can’t do covert observation of private behaviour that’s behind closed doors which reveals darker side of human behaviour
- Difficult to study extreme behaviours or controversial topics - so credibility of psychological research findings may be lowered
- Ethical guidelines constrain research in psychology and therefore reduce its validity
9
Q
What are the reasons why animals should be used in psychological research?
A
- Research is highly reliable because of well controlled standardised lab experiments which are easily replication - animals are good participants
- Similar to humans in brain structure + neurotransmitters as humans
10
Q
What are the Reasons for Conducting Animal Research in Psychology?
A
- Ethical Reasons
- Similarities to humans
- Animals are good participants
- Theoretical knowledge
- Practical application of animal findings
11
Q
What are the Ethical Reasons for Conducting Animal Research in Psychology?
A
- Many experiments are unethical for human testing, but important enough to be justified for animal testing
- Van den Oever (2008) - trained rats to self-administer heroin + found that there were changes in their neurones in the prefrontal cortex which made them more likely to seek the drug again - he concluded that the medial PFC could be a potential target for therapeutic drugs to reduce relapse in heroin addicts
12
Q
What are the Similarities to Humans as a Reason for Conducting Animal Research in Psychology?
A
- Humans are more complex animals - so, easier to study more simple organisms first then generalise to humans
- Animals + humans both have brain structure + neurotransmitters are similar
- But, animals aren’t similar enough to humans - animals have different genetic structure + different balance in senses so perceive world differently
- Also, human behaviour is more complex + they have different motivations + have superior cognitive abilities (e.g. self-awareness)
13
Q
What are Animals are Good Participants as a Reason for Conducting Animal Research in Psychology?
A
- They’re more controllable
- Research w/ them is highly reliable as they use standardised lab experiments which are easily replicated
- Faster breeding cycles allow test to be conducted on the influence of heredity + environment on behaviour - providing useful evidence for the ongoing nature nurture debate
14
Q
What is the Theoretical Knowledge as a Reason for Conducting Animal Research in Psychology?
A
- Animal studies have contributed to our understanding of many topics in psychology
- Such as learning theories
- E.g. from Skinner’s rats
15
Q
What are the Practical Application of Animal Findings as a Reason for Conducting Animal Research in Psychology?
A
- The treatments + therapies based on the principles of operant conditioning - such as the token economy is used in treating schizophrenics
- The training of animal helpers - e.g. guide/police dogs all trained using learning theory principles
16
Q
What are 2 Reasons Why Animals Shouldn’t be used in Psychological Research?
A
- Ethical reasons - animals harmed during research, e.g. boredom, pain
- Practical reasons - Animals aren’t similar enough to humans to ensure research allows valid generalisation to humans = animals have different balance in senses so perceive the world differently + they have different genetic structure to humans
17
Q
What does the BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct (2009) State what Psychologists Should do when Conducting Research Involving Animals?
A
- Observe the highest standards of animal welfare including reduction to the minimum of any pain, suffering, distress, frustration, fear, boredom, or lasting harm
- Avoid any of these conditions which cannot be justified in adherence to the Society’s published ‘Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals’ (BPS 2012)
18
Q
What are the 8 Ethical Guidelines in the BPS Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals?
A
- Legislation
- Replacing use of animals
- Choice of species
- Number of animals
- Procedures
- Procurement of animals
- Disposing of animals
- Animal care
19
Q
What is Legislation as an Ethical Guideline in the BPS Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals?
A
- Familiarise themselves with laws regarding animal welfare
* E.g. The animals (scientific procedures) act - 1986
20
Q
What is Replacing the Use of Animals as an Ethical Guideline in the BPS Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals?
A
- Use of an alternative to using a live organism in research
- E.g. video recordings from previous work
21
Q
What is Choice of Species as an Ethical Guideline in the BPS Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals?
A
- Use scientifically + ethically suitable species
* Justify choice in a project license application
22
Q
What is Number of Animals as an Ethical Guideline in the BPS Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals?
A
- Use smallest number of animals needed
* Achieved by pilot studies, experimental design, statistical tests
23
Q
What is Procedures as an Ethical Guideline in the BPS Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals?
A
- Avoid causing pain, sufferers bf, distress, lasting harm
- Permission for this needs a project licence - more benefits than costs
- E.g. The animals (scientific procedures) act - 1986 - includes (death, harm, disease, stress, discomfort, etc)
24
Q
What is Procurement of Animals as an Ethical Guideline in the BPS Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals?
A
- Common lab species (rats, mice, etc) come from Home Office ‘Designated Breeding + Supply Establishments’
- Other species from high quality suppliers
25
What is Animal Care as an Ethical Guideline in the BPS Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals?
* High standard conditions for animals to be kept in - the animals (scientific procedures) act (1986)
* E.g. caging In isolation is stressful/overcrowding is stressful
26
What is Disposing of Animaos as an Ethical Guideline in the BPS Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals?
* Animals which have been used in a procedure it’s reuse is controlled - requires home office approval
* Killing done painlessly - use analgesics to minimise pain
27
What are the 3Rs that the Home Office says that the Government is Committed to Regarding the Use of Animals in Scientific Research?
* Replacement
* Reduction
* Refinement
28
What is Replacement as 1 of the 3Rs that the Home Office says that the Government is Committed to Regarding the Use of Animals in Scientific Research?
Animals are replaced with non-animal alternatives where ever possible
29
What is Reduction as 1 of the 3Rs that the Home Office says that the Government is Committed to Regarding the Use of Animals in Scientific Research?
Number of animals reduced to minimum needed to achieve the results
30
What is Refinement as 1 of the 3Rs that the Home Office says that the Government is Committed to Regarding the Use of Animals in Scientific Research?
Procedures are refined as much as possible to minimise their suffering
31
What are the 3 Licenses Required by the Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 Before Testing on Animals is Permitted?
* Personal license
* Project license
* Establishment license
32
What is the Personal License Required by the Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 Before Testing on Animals is Permitted?
For each person carrying out procedures on animals
33
What is the Project License Required by the Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 Before Testing on Animals is Permitted?
For the particular program of research
34
What is the Establishment License Required by the Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 Before Testing on Animals is Permitted?
For the place at which the work is carried out
35
What does the Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 Regulate?
The use of protected animals in experimental/scientific procedures which may cause pain, suffering, distress, lasting harm to the animal
36
What are the Advantages of the Use of Ethical Guidelines in Psychological Research with Animals?
* Good reputation of psychological research - adhering to societies moral standards means people are comfortable w/ research being carried on animals
* Rigourous legislation + clear ethical guidelines protect animals that are otherwise unable to defend themselves
* Research can be carried out that would benefit humans without the cost of such findings being too high for animals
37
What are the Disadvantages of the Use of Ethical Guidelines in Psychological Research with Animals?
* Must use smallest possible number of animals so generalisability + reliability of findings must be questioned
* Licenses from home office are expensive + difficult to acquire - limiting research opportunities
* Replication might be prevented so the study cannot be repeated - reducing reliability
* Cannot use endangered species so research is limited - e.g. Bonobo apes are our closest relatives in terms of DNA - increasing generalisability but they are also an endangered species
38
What 3 things does the Standard 2.2 on Ethical Decision Making say a Psychologist Should do in the BPS Code Ethics and Conduct (2009)?
* Be committed to the requirements of this code
* Accept responsibility to attempt to resolve such dilemmas
* Recognise ethical dilemmas will arise in course of professional practice
39
What are the 4 Stages of Risk Management in Psychological Research?
* Identify the risk
* Assess the risk
* Plan response to the risk
* Implement response
40
What is Risk Management in Psychological Research?
Forecasting + evaluation of ethical risks w/ the identification of procedures to avoid or minimise their impact
41
When do Ethical Dilemmas in Psychological Research Arise?
When the aims of the study + how it is planned clash w/ the needs + welfare of the participants
42
What is Cost-Benefit Analysis in Risk Management?
* A systematic process for comparing the benefits + costs of an ethical decision
* We are asking whether ‘the ends justify the means’ - is it worth it
43
What are Costs in a Cost-Benefit Analysis in Risk Management?
The potential negative consequences of the research for:
•Participants involved
•Sometimes for wider society
•The academic discipline of psychology
44
What are Benefits in a Cost-Benefit Analysis in Risk Management?
The potential positive consequences of the research for:
•Participants involved
•Sometimes for wider society
•The academic discipline of psychology
45
What is Reliability?
Research finding is produced consistently over many investigations
46
What is Replicability?
Repeating a study to check on its overall reliability
47
What are Standardised Procedures?
Set of events that occur in the same way every time data is collected for a study - used to minimise variation
48
What is Internal Validity?
Extent to which a test/measure of human behaviour accurately measures what it is supposed to
49
What are the 2 Types of External Validity?
* Population validity
| * Ecological validity
50
What is Ecological Validity as a Type of External Validity?
Extent that a research finding obtained in 1 environment or situation can be generalised to a different environment/situation
51
What is Objectivity?
Ability to carry out an investigation + collect data without any personal interruption or bias to influence the process
52
What is Subjectivity?
Tendency to allow personal opinions + beliefs to influence the way the data is collected + how it can be interpreted
53
What is Generalisability?
Extent to which findings of a piece of research can be applied beyond the research itself
54
When can we be sure a Research Finding from a Study is Reliable?
* If it’s produced consistently over a number of investigations
* So if a study can be replicated to give similar findings, it indicates consistency over time, so it’s reliable
55
Why are Standardised Procedures Important in Psychological Research?
* They are used to minimise variation in what each participant experiences + what each researcher does
* Used to ensure replication of the methodology used so makes research valid
56
What are the 4 Types of Internal Validity?
* Face validity
* Concurrent validity
* Predictive validity
* Construct validity
57
What is Inter-Observer Reliability?
The extent to which different observers produce the same records when they observe the same sequence of behaviour
58
What is an Inference?
A logical conclusion which is based on available evidence
59
What is Face Validity as a Type of Internal Validity?
The extent to which a measure appears - on the face of it - at the surface to measure what it is supposed to measure
60
What is Concurrent Validity as a Type of Internal Validity?
A way of assessing validity by comparing the results of a measure with another already established measure of the same behaviour
61
What is Predictive Validity as a Type of Internal Validity?
How well a test or measure predicts future behaviours
62
What is Construct Validity as a Type of Internal Validity?
A way of assessing validity by showing that the test is measuring a phenomenon that actually exists
63
What is Population Validity as a Type of External Validity?
Extent to which results can be generalised to groups of people other than the sample of participants used
64
Why are Lab Experiments considered to have Low Ecological Validity?
* Results are obtained in artificial environments w/ tight control of variables
* The tasks for participants are often not related to real life
* So, the artificial settings + tasks mean that lab-based experiments lack mundane realism
65
What Factors can Influence the Generalisability of a Psychological Research Finding?
* Development differences - generalisability to other age groups
* Cultural context of the research - generalisability to other cultures
66
What is Quantitative Data?
The form of numbers + quantifies the behaviour being studied through measuring it on a numerical basis
67
What is Qualitative Data?
* Form of words + aims to give a complete account of what people think or feel based on what they say or what they write
* Data emphasises the description + meaning of behaviour
68
What are the Disadvantages of Qualitative Data?
* Analysis of data can be open to interpretation + so more subjective - decreasing validity
* Can be difficult to analyse - difficult to identify trends + themes in the data + reach conclusions
69
What are the Advantages of Qualitative Data?
* Rich + detailed info about the behaviour being studied - represents the true complexities of human behaviour which increases validity
* Data gives info about the meanings of behaviour - this tends to increase validity of research
70
What are the Disadvantages of Quantitative Data?
* Lack richness + detail about the behaviour under investigation - decreasing validity
* Doesn’t give full picture of what we’re studying - it’s lacking validity
* Reduces + oversimplifies complex behaviour to a set of numbers - reductionism in measuring behaviour can reduce validity as it doesn’t provide an accurate reflection of the behaviour
71
What are the Advantages of Quantitative Data?
* Easy to analyse-statistical tests can be used to allow objective comparisons between groups
* More reliable as the research producing the data tends to be easier to replicate
* More objectivity - researcher bias in interpreting the data is lower + can make data more accurate in measuring the behaviour - so validity can be increased
72
What is Primary Data?
Data gathered by the researchers themselves using research methods such as experiments, observations, questionnaires and interviews
73
What is Secondary Data?
Data gathered from already existing sources such as previously published research on the same topic, newspapers, films, books, websites, organisational records, etc
74
What is the Key Advantage of Primary Sources of Data?
The researcher is in control of the quality of the research as they designed the research + then collect + analyse the data themselves
75
What is the Scientific Method?
* The process of testing hypotheses which have been derived from theories that are tested in objective scientific ways
* The resulting data is tested for reliability + is used to verify or falsify the original theories
76
What is Empiricism?
•An emphasis on those aspects of scientific knowledge that
are gained from direct experience
•All hypotheses + theories must be tested against direct observations of the nature (real) world
77
What is Falsification?
•The idea that we can only truly
prove something is not the case
•The act of providing empirical evidence that a theory or hypothesis is false or incorrect
78
What is Science Defined as?
The systematic study of the world based on observation, experiment and measurement
79
What are the Characteristics of Science?
* Knowledge should be empirical
* Knowledge should be falsifiable
* Knowledge should be replicable + reliable
* Science also tends to be reductionist
80
What is Reductionism?
It’s more useful to study these phenomena by breaking them down into their component parts + study each of their parts separately
81
What is Holism?
To study something in its entirety, as a whole is a more meaningful form of research
82
What are the Arguments Supporting Psychology as a Science?
* Psychology uses scientific research methods such as the use of the experimental method
* Much research in psychology is replicable + reliable due to the use of standardisation, even in non-experimental methods
* Psychology has falsifiable theories that generate hypotheses which can be tested
* Scientific reductionism is a widespread viewpoint in psychology
83
What are the Arguments Against the Idea that Psychology is a Science?
* Psychology is not empirical as much of the subject matter that psychology is interested in is not directly observable
* Psychology often uses research methods that aren’t considered scientific
* Psychology cannot be an objective research discipline so it cannot be a science
* Theories + explanations often not falsifiable because of the subject matter of human behaviour
* Research can often lack reliability as studies can be restricted to specific times in places
84
What is the Test-Retest Method?
* Group of participants complete a test twice at different times
* The 1st and 2nd scores are correlated + a high positive correlation means that the test produces reliable outcomes
85
What is the Split-Half Method?
* Measures extent to which the different items on the test are measuring consistently
* Ps take test once, scores on 1 half of the test are compared w/ their scores on the other half of the test
* High correlation indicates the test items are equivalent + consistent in the way they are measuring the variables of interest
86
What is a Correlational Research?
Investigates the extent to which two variables are associated showing a trend or systematic pattern linking them
87
What are Co-Variables?
Two variables in a correlational study which have been measured
88
What is a Major Issue in Correlational Research?
When we use correlation, we cannot infer cause and effect
89
What is Correlational Analysis?
A data analysis technique that describes the relationship between two covariables in statistical terms
90
What are the 2 Main Types of Correlational Relationship?
* Positive correlations
| * Negative correlations
91
What is a Positive Correlation?
High or low values on 1 variable or associated w/ high or low values on the other variable
92
What is a Negative Correlation?
High values on 1 variable are associated w/ low values on the other variable
93
What is a Scatter Diagram?
A visual representation of (a graph of) a correlational relationship
94
What is the Strength of the Correlation Indicted by on a Scatter Diagram?
The straightness of the line of dots
95
What is the Direction of the Correlation Indicted by on a Scatter Diagram?
The slope of the line of dots
96
What is a Correlation Coefficient?
•Any number between -1 and +1 •It tells us the strength of the correlation + the direction
97
What does the Direction of the Correlation Tell is?
Whether it is positive or negative
98
What Numbers are Weak Correlation Coefficients?
0.0 - 0.3
99
What Numbers are Moderate Correlation Coefficients?
0.4-0.7
100
What Numbers are Strong Correlation Coefficients?
0.8+
101
What are Data Collecting Techniques in Correlational Research?
* Observation
* Questionnaire
* Controlled tasks
* Accessing previously collected data
102
What are Strengths of Correlational Research?
* If a relationship between two variables is indicated this can be a starting point for stimulating future research
* It allows the identification of relationships between variables when it is difficult for practical reasons or unethical to manipulate the variables the researcher is interested in
* Correlational research is scientific in that it tends to be objective + easily replicable using quantitative data collection methods
103
What are Weaknesses of Correlational Research?
* There is little control over variables so it doesn’t allow cause-and-effect links to be established
* Correlations can be misused - it is difficult to make accurate conclusions about the causes of relationship - Scientist + Media make huge claims based on correlational research that sounds convincing to the public but in reality it could mean something different
104
What is an Observational Research?
Focuses on the observation of a persons freely chosen behaviour
105
What are the 2 Main Types of Observational Research Methods?
* Naturalistic
| * Structured
106
What is Naturalistic as a Type of Observational Research Method?
Observations where behaviour is studied in its natural settings + the environment is left as it normally is without any manipulation
107
What is Structured as a Type of Observational Research Method?
* Observations where some of the variables, including the environment, are controlled
* The situations may be set up or structured in some way
108
What are Covert Observations?
When the participants don’t know they are being observed
109
What are Overt Observations?
When observer is known to be present by those observed
110
What are Participant Observations?
When the observer becomes part of a group either with or without their knowledge
111
What are Non-Participant Observations?
Where observer is not involved in the action
112
What are the Main Characteristics of Naturalistic Observations?
* Non-participant = observer isn’t involved in the action
* Covert = Ps don’t know they’re being observed
* Collecting qualitative data
* Behaviour is studied in its natural setting + environment left as it normally is
113
What are the Advantages of Naturalistic Observations?
* Useful for the study of behaviour in situations where ethical considerations prevent manipulation of variables
* High ecological validity as setting is natural, so the results are more generalisable to real life behaviour
* Data is very rich, detailed + meaningful = validity increased as naturalistic observations can gather data on all that happens in real life situation
114
What are the Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observations?
* Low reliability - replication of naturalistic observations is more difficult
* Lack of control over extraneous variables means that cause-and-effect relationships between variables cannot be established
* Threat to validity - People may become aware that they are being studied + alter their behaviour
* Ethical considerations concerning deception, consent + invasion of privacy + right to withdraw can be serious issues
115
What are the Main Characteristics of Structured Observations?
* Non-participant observations
* Collecting quantitative data
* Covert = observer remains discreet (e.g. using screens)
* Involves recording of spontaneously occurring behaviour (by film/tape)
* Some of variables (including environment) are controlled
* Situations may be set up or structured in some way
116
What are the Advantages of Structured Observations?
* Higher reliability - there is greater control which leads to easier replication
* More control over the environment which leads to more accurate observations as highly standardised procedures put in place
* Control confounding variables
117
What are the Disadvantages of Structured Observations?
* Cannot attribute causality between IV + DV as there may be problems controlling variables
* IV hasn’t been manipulated in the same way
* Low ecological validity - because if in a Lab then non-natural behaviour + recorded in structured categories (artificial)
118
What are the Advantages of Participant Observations?
* High ecological validity - people continue normally
| * More meaningful observations as observer has better understanding of events = richer + more detailed data
119
What are the Disadvantages of Participant Observations?
* Ethical issues raised - deception + invasion of privacy is a problem
* Researchers may get too involved - become less objective - influence natural behaviour of the group which affects validity
* Difficult to record observations of behaviour at the time it happens - info may be forgotten but can use hidden cameras to help + data is prone to bias as the researcher is interpreting it
120
What are the Disadvantages of Non-Participant Observations?
* Validity lowered - as non-participant observer has little understanding of what is happening
* Ethical issues (invasion of privacy, consent, right to withdraw) are raised
121
What are the Advantages of Non-Participant Observations?
* Objectivity higher - as the observer has no stake in the activities being observed
* Accuracy of observations + amount of data collected is high - observer focuses on data collection - so, validity is high
122
What are the Advantages of Covert Observations?
* Higher validity - behaviour more natural
* Demand characteristics lower as observer can record data without being concerned about the effect it will have on participants
123
What are the Disadvantages of Covert Observations?
* Ethical issues raised - difficult to gain consent, debriefing, deception, no right to withdraw, invasion of privacy
* Practical problems - not easy to observe behaviour secretly as difficult to find a position where notes are being made
124
What are the Advantages of Overt Observations?
Ethical - can gain consent, debrief - a good place to observe can be chosen + discussed
125
What are the Disadvantages of Overt Observations?
* Observer may be distracted, so data recorded may not be that accurate
* Behaviour may change - increased effects of demand characteristics, social desirability
126
What are the Issues in Observational Research?
* Reliability - researcher effects can lead to low inter-observer reliability
* Observations lack validity if the coding systems are flawed or vague
* Validity of observations are affected by researcher bias as the way they record their observations is subjective
* Subjective interpreters of behaviour by observers must be avoided
* Ethical issues - no informed consent, no debriefing, invasion of privacy
127
How do you Deal with Threats to Validity in Observational Research?
* The behaviour to be observed must be clearly operationalised
* Behaviour checklists must be carefully planned + piloted to ensure they measure what was originally intended
* Using more than one observer + conducting observations in varied settings will reduce observer bias
128
How do you Deal with Threats to Reliability in Observational Research?
* Pilot studies can be used to train observers in the use of the recording systems
* Eventually their observations should show a high positive correlation when tested + high inter-observer reliability
129
What are the 3 Main Techniques for Sampling the Behaviour of Interest in Observational Research?
* Continuous observation
* Time sampling
* Event sampling
130
What is Continuous Observation as a Technique for Sampling the Behaviour of Interest in Observational Research?
The observer records every instance of behaviour
131
What is Time Sampling as a Technique for Sampling the Behaviour of Interest in Observational Research?
Recording target behaviours for set lengths of time at set intervals
132
What is Event Sampling as a Technique for Sampling the Behaviour of Interest in Observational Research?
Recording certain behaviour (a specific event) every time it occurs in a target individual or group of individuals throughout the observation period
133
When is Continuous Observation Useful as a Technique for Sampling the Behaviour of Interest in Observational Research?
If the behaviour of interest doesn’t occur very often
134
What are the Advantages of Time Sampling as a Technique for Sampling the Behaviour of Interest in Observational Research?
* Reduces the amount of time spent in observing behaviour
| * This may reduce boredom + fatigue in observers which increases their accuracy
135
What are the Disadvantages of Time Sampling as a Technique for Sampling the Behaviour of Interest in Observational Research?
Certain important instances of the target behaviour may be missed unless sampling is carefully planned
136
What are the Advantages of Event Sampling as a Technique for Sampling the Behaviour of Interest in Observational Research?
* It limits the behaviours that need to be observed so it reduces the chance that the behaviour of interest will be missed
* Quantitative - quick + easy
* Objective - not stating any of your own behaviour
137
What are the Disadvantages of Event Sampling as a Technique for Sampling the Behaviour of Interest in Observational Research?
* It may be difficult to observe all events if there are a large number of people to observe or if they are spread over a large area
* Quantitative - not rich info
* Unethical - no informed consent
138
What is the Main Technique used to Record Quantitative Data in Observations?
Event sampling
139
What is the Main Technique used to Record Qualitative Data in Observations?
Continuous behaviour sampling
140
What is Content Analysis?
A research technique for the systematic quantitative description of the content in written, spoken or visual human communication
141
What are the 2 Main Sources of Qualitative Data that could be Used in a Content Analysis?
* The media (e.g. print media, visual media)
| * Primary research data (e.g. new info)
142
What are Examples of The Media as a Source of Qualitative Data that could be Used in a Content Analysis?
* Visual media
* Print media
* Visual images in the media
* Visual artistic productions
* Personal documents
* Any recorded narrative
143
What are the 5 Main Steps in the Process of Content Analysis?
* Research question
* Sampling
* Coding units
* Pilot studies
* Collecting data
144
What is the 1st Step of Research Question in the Process of Content Analysis?
* Shapes the way research is done
| * Helps in choosing appropriate materials + coding units
145
What is the 2nd Step of Sampling in the Process of Content Analysis?
* Material of interest is 1st defined (e.g. music videos)
| * Researchers must decide how much of available info will be analysed
146
What is the 3rd Step of Coding Units in the Process of Content Analysis?
Decide how to categorise material to be analysed to best answer the research question - categories/coding units
147
What is the 4th Step of Pilot Studies in the Process of Content Analysis?
Researchers must become familiar w/ types of material likely to be encountered + improve the system chosen for categorising the data
148
What is the 5th Step of Collecting Data in the Process of Content Analysis?
* Nominal level data - frequencies count -create tally, etc
| * Ordinal data - coders rank items - level 1-10, etc
149
What is Socially Sensitive Research?
Any psychological research that has ethical implications that go beyond the research situation + affect people or groups in the wider society
150
What are the Strengths of Content Analysis?
* Very useful for analysing historical material
* Reliability high - replication is easy as the materials + standardise procedures are available for others to use
* No ethical issues but it may be socially sensitive as some topics have a -ve impact
* High external validity - you’re investigating something that is actually seen/read/heard by people in the real world which increases the generalisability of the conclusions
* Summarising qualitative into quantitative data is useful as it is a method of changing the mass of qualitative data + human communication into quantitative data that can be statistically analysed
151
What are the Weaknesses of Content Analysis?
* Low validity - subjectivity + researcher effects are high as the codes + categories are chosen by the researcher
* Cannot show cause-and-effect-doesn’t reveal underlying motives for the observed patterns-e.g. doesn’t say why
* Analysis may be limited by an unrepresentative sample of available materials - catastrophic events receive more coverage than less dramatic occurrences
152
What is Thematic Analysis?
A technique used for the analysis of qualitative data-identifying + assessing patterns in qualitative data allowing conclusions to be drawn
153
What are the Strengths of Thematic Analysis?
* Data is rich + qualitative when identifying themes - provides ‘an intimate window onto life worlds of people’
* Validity remains as data remains qualitative + main meanings in data should be preserved - large qualitative to manageable summery
154
What are the Weaknesses of Thematic Analysis?
* Researcher effects can undermine validity of any conclusions reached
* Time-consuming + highly skilled task - difficult to identify a limited number of themes that answer research question
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What is a Case Study?
An in-depth investigation gathering highly detailed info of a single individual or small group
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What Sources of Information would a Psychologist Use when compiling a Case Study?
* Employment records
* Psychometric tests
* Attitude questionnaires
* Observations of participants
* Interviews with the participant, parents, family members, teachers, managers, friends
* Results of experimental tasks carried out by the participant
* Physiological measures - e.g. MRI scans
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What is the Purpose of a Case Study?
* Gain in-depth highly detailed info
| * Unique/valuable examples of human behaviour providing important insights into psychological functions
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What are the Advantages of Case Studies?
* Collect rich + detailed data - often qualitative data
* The data case studies provide trigger further research + can sometimes be used to challenge established theories as they deal with usual cases normally
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What are the Disadvantages of Case Studies?
* Ethical issues are raised - e.g. invasion of privacy
* Cannot be used to establish cause+effect links between variables due to lack of control over variables
* Reliability is low - studies are often difficult to replicate as they are unique studies
* Low validity - if participant’s being asked to remember info from the past which they may not recall correctly
* Low validity - researcher spend a lot of time interviewing + building up a relationship w/ Ps leading to the researcher interpreting data in a subjective manner
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What is a Twin Study?
Comparing monozygotic twins + dizygotic twins pairs - comparing concordance rates
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What are the Strengths of Twin Studies?
Provide the only ethical way of studying the behaviour of people who are 100% genetically identical to see how much of a role DNA has in our behaviour
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What are the Weaknesses of Twin Studies?
* No twin study has ever found 100% concordance rates on any characteristic or behaviour in MZ twins - so researchers must take into account the effect of the environment on behaviour - e.g. social class, poverty, etc
* Low validity - researchers aren’t really measuring genetic similarities alone as MZ twins, being identical, may be treated more alike than DZ twins, so the higher concordance rates in MZs May also be due to the greater similarities in their upbringing than DZ twins
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What is an Adoption Study?
* Look at the impact of nurture on children who are raised by parents who aren’t their biological parents
* Compare the concordance rates
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What are the Strengths of Adoption Studies?
* Allow the study of children where the influence of just the genetic influence of their biological parents can be studied as they have been from the influence of their upbringing
* This cannot be done ethically in any other way
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What are the Weaknesses of Adoption Studies?
* Only certain types of family might be accepted to adopt children w/ certain qualities - so results of research are less generalisable to the population
* Children placed in adoptive families similar to their biological family - so researcher can’t assume that the 2 environments are very different - so, behaviour being studied may be transmitted from 1 generation to the next by social learning or reinforcement of antisocial values rather than genetics
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What are Concordance Rates in Twin Studies?
The degree to which members of a twin pair display the same characteristics, expressed as a percentage
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What are the Brain Scanning Techniques?
* fMRI Scans
* CAT Scans
* PET Scans
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What does fMRI Scans Stand for as a Brain Scanning Technique?
Functional magnetic resonance imaging scans
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How do fMRI Scans Work as a Brain Scanning Techniques?
* Detects changes in blood oxygenation + flow that occur in response to neural activity
* Magnetic field produced by passing an electric current through wire coils
* Magnetic field causes molecules within the body to move in a different way + release radio waves which the scanner detects
* It detects the rate at which oxyhaemoglobin becomes deoxyhaemoglobin - this technique is called BOLD
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What is BOLD Contrast Imagine in fMRI Scans?
* Blood oxygen level dependent
| * Detects the rate at which oxyhaemoglobin becomes deoxyhemoglobin
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What happens to the Blood Flow of the Brain when a Specific Area is More Active in fMRI Scans?
•Increasing bloodflow w/ oxyhaemoglobin to that area •As, this area of the brain will need more oxygen to support the metabolic activity in the neurons
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How is fMRI Scanning used to Investigate Human Behaviour?
Cognitive tasks carried out by participant + brain areas in use are clearly identified in the images
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What does it mean if a Particular Area in the Brain has a High BOLD Contrast during a Specific Behaviour in fMRI Scans?
It can be inferred that the specific area has a role in producing the behaviour
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What are the Strengths of the Use of fMRI Scanning in Psychological Research?
* Ethical - doesn’t involve exposure to radiation, so it’s safe for participants
* Valid way of studying normal brain function for psychologists
* It’s provided new insight to the investigation of how memories are formed, language, pain, learning + emotion and it’s being applied in clinical psychology settings
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What are the Weaknesses of the Use of fMRI Scanning in Psychological Research?
* Cannot look at the activity of the actual receptors of neurotransmitters
* Low Validity- images need to be analysed + interpreted, so misinterpretation is possible
* High quality images are assured only if participants are able to remain perfectly still
* Implanted medical devices that contain metal may malfunction or cause problems during an MRI exam
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How can CAT Scans be Used to Investigate Human Behaviour?
When investigating abnormal behaviour - CAT scans detect any structural abnormalities which you can associate with the behaviour
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How do CAT Scans Work as a Brain Scanning Techniques?
* Use x-rays to build up a 3D structural image of the brain
* Detectors measure amount of radiation being absorbed throughout brain
* Detectors rotated to give views from a variety of directions
* Many images combined by computer to give a composite detailed 3D image of the brain
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How can PET Scans be Used to Investigate Human Behaviour?
* Participants scanned while completing cognitive tasks
| * Find out which areas of the brain are active during specific behaviours
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How do PET Scans Work as a Brain Scanning Techniques?
* Small amount of radioactive material injected into Ps
* Radioactive material binds to glucose molecules in body, forming a tracer
* Brain uses glucose as energy, so most active areas of brain absorbs the tracer
* Radioactive material emits positively charged particles (positrons) which are picked up by the scanner
* This info allows the computer to produce coloured images of the level of activity occurring throughout the brain
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What can CAT Scanning of the Head be Used to Detect?
* Brain tumours
* Enlarged brain cavities in patients with hydrocephalus
* Diseases or malformations of the skull
* Bleeding, brain injury + skull fractures in patients w/ head injuries
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What are the Strengths of the Use of CAT Scanning in Psychological Research?
* Less harmful, not painful + it’s non-invasive
* Provides very detailed images of the physical structures of the brain which is highly valid data
* Less sensitive to patient movement
* Can be performed if you have an implanted medical device of any kind
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What are the Weaknesses of the Use of CAT Scanning in Psychological Research?
* Always a slight chance of cancer from excessive exposure to radiation but the risk is small
* The precise details of soft tissue in the brain are less visible
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What are the Strengths of the Use of PET Scanning in Psychological Research?
* High reliability - as they can be replicated exactly + same results are found
* Gives valid measures of important functions in the brain such as bloodflow, O2 use + glucose metabolism providing unique data
* Usually painless
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What are the Weaknesses of the Use of PET Scanning in Psychological Research?
* Low validity - produce complex images that may be open to bias or error in interpretation
* Unethical as they result in radiation exposure to the patient
* Low validity in conclusion - doesn’t tell us exactly which parts of the brain are involved + how as it’s difficult to isolate different areas of brain function precisely - so it lacks important details
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What are PET Scans Performed to do?
* Map normal human brain function
| * Evaluate brain abnormalities - such as tumours, memory disorders, seizures + other central nervous system disorders
