Learning Theories Flashcards
1
Q
What is meant by the term ‘Tabula Rasa’?
A
Blank slate
2
Q
What was the Aim of Watson + Rayner study?
A
•Whether or not classical conditioning occurs in humans
Wanted to find out:
• If they could condition fear of animal by simultaneously presenting the animal + making a loud noise to scare the child
•If fear would be transferred to other stimuli
•The effect of time on the conditioned response
3
Q
What is meant by the term Nurture?
A
Environmental factors + social factors
4
Q
When does learning theories suggest that all behaviour is learnt?
A
After birth
5
Q
What does an experiment try to determine?
A
A difference in variables + cause and effect links
6
Q
How does an experiment try to establish validity?
A
High level of controls
7
Q
How does an experiment try to establish reliability?
A
Standardised procedures
8
Q
Who was Classical Conditioning theory developed by?
A
Ivan Pavlov
9
Q
What is an Unconditioned Stimulus?
A
A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
10
Q
What is an Conditioned Stimulus?
A
Previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated associated w/ US elicits response produced by US (unconditioned stimulus)
11
Q
What is an Unconditioned Response?
A
Behaviour that occurs naturally due to a given stimulus
12
Q
What is an Conditioned Response?
A
Automatic response established by training to an ordinary neutral stimulus
13
Q
What is a Stimulus?
A
A external factor/event - can bring about a behaviour (response)
14
Q
What is an Neutral Stimulus?
A
A stimulus that initially produces no specific response
15
Q
What was the Aim of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?
A
Find out if a reflexive behaviour (salivation) can be produced in new situations through learning - see if associating a reflex with a neutral stimulus causes learning to take place
16
Q
What was the Hypothesis of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?
A
Proposed that dogs would salivate when they see food - this could be paired w/ another stimulus in order to new behaviour
17
Q
What was the Sample of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?
A
35 dogs raised in kennels in the lab
18
Q
What was the Controls of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?
A
- Each dog sealed in a room - can’t see/smell/heat outside - to prevent extraneous variables from making dog salivate
- Dog strapped to harness to stop moving
- Dogs mouth linked to a tube that drained saliva away into a measuring bottle
- Careful set up to count how much saliva was produced
19
Q
What was the Before Conditioning stage 1 of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?
A
- Unconditioned stimulus - food
* Unconditioned response - salivation
20
Q
What was the Before Conditioning stage 2 of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?
A
- Neutral stimulus - whistle
* No conditioned response- no salivation
21
Q
What was the During Conditioning stage 3 of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?
A
- Neutral stimulus - whistle + unconditioned stimulus - food
- Unconditioned response - salivation
22
Q
What was the After Conditioning stage 4 of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?
A
- Conditioned stimulus - whistle
* Conditioned response - salivation
23
Q
What was the Conclusion of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?
A
- Environmental stimuli that previously had no reaction to reflex action could, by repeated pairings, trigger salivation response
- Through the process of associative learning the conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned response - new behaviour learnt
24
Q
What does the Classical Conditioning Theory propose?
A
Learning a new behaviour is a process of association so 2 stimuli are linked together to produce a newly learned response
25
What is Stage 1 Before Conditioning in the Classical Conditioning Theory?
* Unconditioned stimulus produces an unconditioned response
* So, stimulus produced a behaviour which is unlearned
26
What is Stage 2 Before Conditioning in the Classical Conditioning Theory?
* The neutral stimulus produces a neutral response
| * Another stimulus has no specific effect on an organism
27
What is Stage 3 During Conditioning in the Classical Conditioning Theory?
* Stimulus that produces no specific response is presented with the unconditioned stimulus
* USC associated with CS on number of occasions
28
What is Stage 4 After Conditioning in the Classical Conditioning Theory?
•Conditioned stimulus has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus to create a new conditioned response
29
What is Extinction in the Classical Conditioning Theory?
* The associated can disappear between CS and CR
| * Can happen when paired stimulus is separated and the learned response is no longer carried out
30
What is Spontaneous Recovery in Classical Conditioning?
* After extinción, association recurs for no reason
* The CS suddenly produces the response that was conditioned previously
* The reappearance is the spontaneous recovery
31
What is Stimulus Generation in Classical Conditioning?
CS produces the same behaviour to a similar situation after the response has been conditioned
32
What Positive Evidence is there to Support the Classical Conditioning theory?
* Pavlov (1927) - showed how it can b used to make a dog salivate to the sounds
* Watson + Rayner (1920) - showed how it could explain emotional responses in a human child
* Brain scanning revealing ‘reward centres’ in the brain that activate when pleasant learned associations are formed
33
What are the Positives of the Methodology in the Classical Conditioning Theory?
* Scientifically credible
* Based on empirical evidence in controlled experiments
* Strict control of extraneous variables
* Directly observable behaviours- every step in the process is discernible
* Complex behaviour broken down into small stimulus response units - scientific
34
What are the Applications for the Classical Conditioning Theory?
Effective treatment for dysfunctional behaviours - for aversion therapy + systematic desensitisation
35
What are the Negatives of the Methodology of Classical Conditioning Theory?
* Not generalisable as Pavlov used dogs
| * Reductionist - lacks validity - it can lead to incomplete explanations of Human behaviour
36
What is the Evidence Against the Classical Conditioning Theory?
Deterministic:
•Doesn’t allow for any degree of free will in the individual
•Underestimates the uniqueness and of human beings + their freedom to choose their own behaviours
37
What are the Reasons to Use Animals in Experiments?
* Easy to handle
* Can learn something new which it is fairly certain that they haven’t experienced before
* Lab studies have strict controls - high validity
* Experiments are easy to repeat - high reliability
38
What are the Problems with Using Animals in Experiments?
* Brain differences between humans + animals - differences = low generalisability
* Ethically, rights of animals should be acknowledged - adherence to animals act
* Animals different from each other + will always respond differently
* Lab studied are carried out in artificial environments - findings lack ecological validity
39
What is Observational Research?
Focuses on the observation of a persons freely chosen behaviour
40
What are Naturalistic Observations?
Behaviour is studied in its natural setting + environment is left as it normally is with no manipulation by the researcher
41
What are Structured Observations?
•Some of variables are controlled
- e.g. environment
•May be in a lab setting
•Situations may be set up or structured in some way
42
What are the 2 Main Types of Observation?
* Naturalistic
| * Structured
43
What are the Advantages of Naturalistic Observations?
* High ecological validity as the setting is natural
* High un internal validity as the data gathered can be very rich + detailed - it can gather data on all that happens in a real life situation
44
What are the Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observations?
•Lack of control over extraneous variables - so cause + effect relationship can’t be established •Ethical considerations concerning deception + consent + invasion of privacy + right to withdrawal can be serious issues
45
What are the Advantages of Structured Observations?
•More control over environment which leads to more accurate observations as highly standardised procedures can be put in place •Easier replication so results have higher reliability
46
What are the Disadvantages of Structured Observations?
* Lab experiment so ecological validity is lower
| * Cannot see cause + effect between IV + DV as there may be problems controlling variables
47
What are participant observations?
When observer becomes part of a group
48
What are the advantages of participant observation?
* High ecological validity - so, participants act normally
| * Rich data and more meaningful
49
What are the disadvantages of participant observations?
* Researcher become too involved - so, becomes less objective + influence natural behaviours
* Difficult to record all observations
* Ethical issues - deception + invasion of privacy
50
What are Covert research methods?
When participants don’t know that being observed
51
What is an advantage of covert research methods?
* Higher validity as behaviour more natural
| * Demand characteristics lower •High ecological validity - study participants in their natural environment
52
What is a disadvantage of covert research methods?
Ethical issues:
• difficult to gain consent + debriefing + deception + no right to withdraw + invasion of privacy as they are secretly observed
53
What is the research method of collecting quantitative data?
In the form of numbers collected for statistical analysis
54
What is an advantage of the research method of collecting quantitative data?
* Objective as not stating your opinion
* Quick + easy
* High in ecological validity as no altered environment
55
What is a disadvantage of the research method of collecting quantitative data?
* No rich + detailed info
| * No informed consent
56
What are Non Participant Observations?
When the observer isn’t involved in the action
57
What are the Advantages of Non Participant Observations?
* Higher objectivity + accuracy of data + amount of data collected is high
* Validity high as observer focuses on data collection
58
What are the Disadvantages of Non Participant Observations?
* Validity lowered - observer has little understanding of what’s happening
* Ethical issues - no consent, invasion of privacy, etc
59
What are overt research methods?
When the observer is known to be present
60
What are the advantages of overt research methods?
•Good place to observe can be discussed
Ethical:
•Gain consent
•Can debrief
61
What are the disadvantages of overt research methods?
* Behaviour may change - social desirability + increased effects of demand characteristics
* Observer may be distracted so data recorded may not be accurate
62
What is the research method of collecting qualitative data?
* Writing down notes on all that the observer sees + hears
| * Normally continuous behaviour sampling
63
What is the advantages of research method of collecting qualitative data?
Rich + detailed data - increases validity
64
What is the disadvantages of research method of collecting qualitative data?
* Time consuming
| * Hard to replicate as subjective
65
What is Inter-Observer Reliability ?
Extent to which the recorder observations of two observers are consistent
66
What are the 2 main methods of sampling behaviour which gain quantitative data?
* Event sampling
| * Time sampling
67
What is Event Sampling?
Recording certain behaviour every time it occurs in a target group/individual throughout observation period
68
What is a Strength of Event Sampling?
Quantitative data is easy to analyse which limits the behaviours that need to be observed
69
What is a Weakness of Event Sampling?
* Difficult to observe all events if there is a large number of people to observe
* May miss out on certain behaviours
70
What is time sampling?
Recording target behaviours for set lengths of time at set intervals
71
What is an advantage of time sampling?
* Quick - reduce boredom + fatigue
| * So, increasing accuracy as no demand characteristics
72
What is a disadvantage of time sampling?
Important instances of the target behaviour may be missed unless sampling is carefully planned
73
What is continuous sampling?
Observer records every instance of behaviour
74
What is an advantage of continuous sampling?
* Rich + detailed info as qualitative
* So, can give an insight + understanding
* Useful if behaviour of interest doesn’t occur very often
75
What is a disadvantage of continuous sampling?
* Too many behaviours to take notes on
* Time consuming
* Data cannot be analysed statistically as qualitative data
76
What are the Ethical Issues in Observational Research?
* No informed consent - Ps don’t know they’re being observed
* Some could be considered an invasion of privacy
77
How to deal with the Ethical Issues in Observational Research?
Debrief the participants afterwards - explaining the aims of the study + asking their permission to use the data
78
How to deal with threats to validity in observational research?
* Behaviour must be clearly operationalised
* Behaviour checklists must be planned + piloted
* Using more than 1 observer + conducting observations in various settings - reduces observer bias
79
How to deal with threats to reliability in observational research?
* Pilot studies used to train observers in the use of the recording systems
* They should practice using the observation systems
80
How is Reliability in observational research Low?
* Researcher effects/observer bias leads to low inter-observer reliability
* So, observers’ categorisation of the same behaviour does not agree
81
How is validity in observational research Low?
•If coding systems used is flawed, vague, ambitious •Researcher/observer bias in which the way they record their observations is subjective
82
What is the behaviour sampling technique which gains qualitative data?
Continuous observation
83
What is the Title for the Practical Report?
An observation to investigate the gender differences of drivers behaviour
84
What is the Aim for the Practical Report?
A naturalistic observation is to investigate whether there are gender differences in drivers behaviours whilst they are at a set of traffic lights
85
What are the 4 Variables that were Measured Quantitatively in the Practical Report?
* Looking in mirror
* Looking at phone
* Fixing radio/using it
* Drinking/eating
86
What is the Alternate Hypothesis (Ha) for the Practical Report?
Significant difference between males + female drivers behaviour whilst they are waiting at a set of traffic lights w/ a focus on the differences of these variables: looking in the mirror, looking at phone, fixing radio/using it, drinking or eating
87
What is the Null Hypothesis for the Practical Report?
No significant difference between males + female drivers behaviour whilst they are waiting at a set of traffic lights w/ a focus on the differences of these variables: looking in the mirror, looking at phone, fixing radio/using it, drinking or eating
88
What was the Sampling Technique used for the Practical Report?
Opportunity sampling
89
What was Opportunity Sampling used as the Sampling Technique for the Practical Report?
Easy + convenient - allowing data to be collected quickly
90
What was the Sample used in the Practical Report?
* Male + female
* Over 17
* Driving through Reigate
* Monday at 2:30 in Feb
91
What was a Strength of the Sample used in the Practical Report?
* Both sexes sampled
| * So, we can compare the difference of learnt behaviour between the genders
92
What was a Weakness of the Sample used in the Practical Report?
* All participants driving through Reigate
* So, findings might not generalise to other parts of UK or other countries
* So, low in generalisability
93
What were the Ethical Issues for the Practical Report?
* Deception
* No debriefing
* No right to withdraw
* Informed consent not given
94
What were the Materials used for the Practical Report?
* Stop clock w/ timer
* Pens/pencils
* Clipboard
* Data collection sheet w/ table for quantitative data
* Data collection sheet w/ table for qualitative data
95
How many Participants were used for the Practical Report?
* 149 in total
* 62 females
* 87 males
96
What happened when the Observation was Completed for the Practical Report?
* Observers collected all results
| * Qualitative + quantitative data was then analysed
97
How large was the Teams of Observers for the Practical Report?
Team of 3-4 people
98
What were the Different Roles for the Practical Report?
* Recording quantitative data
* Recording qualitative data
* Timing
99
What was the Procedure for the Practical Report?
* Observers positioned themselves either in a bench outside college, high street, traffic lights near cinema or T junction
* Started the timer + observed for 30 mins
100
What was the Statistical Test used for the Practical Report?
Chi-square
101
What is the Practical Report tearing for?
Difference of driving behaviour between genders
102
What Level of Measurement was the Data for the Practical Report?
Nominal data - as it was recorded in categories
103
Was the data Related Or Unrelated for the Practical Report?
Unrelated data/groups
104
What is the Level of Significance for the Practical Report Study?
0.05
105
What was the Critical Value for the Practical Report Study?
7.82
106
What was the Observed Value for the Practical Report Study?
0.683
107
What was Degrees of Freedom for the Practical Report Study?
3
108
Was the Practical Report Study One Tailed Or Two Tailed?
Two tailed
109
Which Hypothesis is Accepted for the Practical Report Study for the Quantitative Data?
* Null hypothesis
| * As, no significant difference in driving behaviours of males + females in Reigate Highstreet
110
What is the Statement of Significance for the Practical Report Study?
Due to the observed value being 0.683 it’s lower than the critical value when the DF was 3 at 0.05% level of significance for a 2 tailed test.
111
What is Thematic Analysis?
Identifying and assessing patterns of qualitative data allowing conclusions to be drawn
112
What is Qualitative Data?
Form of words and tells us what people think/feel based on what they say/write
113
What’s Quantitative Data?
Form of numbers + quantifies the behaviour being studied through measuring it a numerical basis
114
What were the Main themes Identified for Males + Females for the Practical Report Study?
* Interpersonal behaviour - males have higher as they stare more
* Intrapersonal behaviour - more evidence of this for females
115
What is Interpersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?
Behaviour taking place with others
116
What is Intrapersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?
Behaviour taking place with individual
117
How have Males shown Intrapersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?
Touching objects
118
How have Males shown Interpersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?
* Laughing
* Talking
* Staring - angry/normal
119
How have Females shown Intrapersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?
* Touching objects
| * Looking around/at herself
120
How have Females shown Interpersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?
Talking
121
What Future Research could be Conducted based on the Findings for the Practical Report Study?
Use a Confederate to not move at a green light + observe the person behind thems reaction + record their gender
122
What are 2 Improvements for the Practical Report Study?
* Make it more ethical
| * Make it more generalisable
123
How do you make the Practical Report Study more Ethical?
Debrief the participants after
124
How do you make the Practical Report Study more Generlisable?
Repeat the experiment in a different area
125
What are 2 Weaknesses for the Practical Report Study?
* Generalisability is low
| * There are ethical concerns
126
How is the Generalisability Low for the Practical Report Study?
* Only people in Reigate who were driving at 2:30
| * So, not representative to target population
127
How is their Ethical Concerns for the Practical Report Study?
Consent wasn’t gained, no debriefing, no right to withdraw, etc
128
What are 2 Strengths of the Practical Report Study?
* High in ecological validity
| * Collected both quantitative + qualitative data
129
How is the Practical Report Study High in Ecological Validity?
Observed participants in their natural environment - driving in Reigate
130
How did the Practical Report Study Collect both Quantitative + Qualitative Data?
```
•Looked at behaviours + actions they did
Measured:
•Looking in the mirror
•Looking at phone
•Fixing radio/using it
•Drinking/eating
```
131
What was the Conclusion in relation to Behaviour in General for the Practical Report Study?
The observation + differences in driving behaviours between genders has shown that there is no significant difference
132
What did the Results from Thematic Analysis Indicate?
•Men - interact more w/ others in their car + show more emotions •Women are more independent in the car + touch objects
133
What did the Chi-Square Results Show for the Practical Report Study?
There is no significant difference between genders driving behaviours
134
What does Previous Research Indicate about Gender Differences in Driving for the Practical Report?
* Woman are less likely to found in a car crash
* Woman less likely to speed
* Men who past their test quickly - lose concentration
135
Who Developed the learning theory of Operant Conditioning?
Frederic Skinner
136
What was the Aim of Thorndike’s Research (1911) which Initiated the Operant Conditioning theory?
Investigate how behaviour was learnt in a scientific manner
137
What did Thorndike Decelop for his Research (1911) which Initiated the Operant Conditioning theory?
A puzzle box w/ a single exit that could only be opened by a system of levers
138
What was the Study of Thorndike’s Research (1911) which Initiated the Operant Conditioning theory?
* Hungry cat placed in box w/ food placed outside
* Cat tried to get out + accidentally pressed the lever
* Gradually learnt by trail + error how to open the box
* So, cat got food - that acted as a reward
139
Why was a Reward given in Thorndike’s Research (1911) which Initiated the Operant Conditioning theory?
* So behaviour is repeated
| * Called - trail + error learning
140
What was the Law or Effect that Thorndike’s Research (1911) Stated which Initiated the Operant Conditioning theory?
If the effect of learning to get out of the box is good so gets food then behaviour is learnt + repeated
141
What did Skinner Develop for his Research (1938) which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?
An environment for the rats to live in + experience positive + negative reinforcement to see if this could change their behaviour
142
What was the Environment Skinner Created for his Research (1938) which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?
Skinner box
143
Why were Rats placed in a Box for Skinner’s Research (1938) which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?
* So he was able to manipulate the rats behaviour through reinforcement
* Used to deliver negative + positive reinforcements associated w/ eating
144
What did the Rats in Skinner’s Research (1938) Learn overtime which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?
* About how they were punished + rewarded
| * If they carried out desired behaviour then rewarded w/ food
145
What is an Example of when the Rats in Skinner’s Research (1938) were Rewarded for Desired Behaviour which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?
* Each time they saw a red light - they pressed the lever
* So rewarded w/ a food pellet
* Overtime they learnt the association w/ touching a lever and receiving food
146
How were the Rats in Skinner’s Research (1938) Punished for Certain Behaviour which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?
* Used an electric shock generator
* Electric shock was used as an punishment
* If he punished the rats then they are less likely to do this behaviour
147
What does the B in the ABC model of Operant Conditioning Mean?
* Behaviour
| * The response made by the organism
148
What does the A in the ABC model of Operant Conditioning Mean?
* Antecedent
| * The situation/stimulus that triggers a behaviour
149
What does the C in the ABC model of Operant Conditioning Mean?
* Consequence
| * What happens because of the behaviour
150
What are the 2 main types of Consequence of Operant Conditioning?
* Reinforces
| * Punishers
151
What are Reinforcers as a Consequence in Operant Conditioning?
* Consequences from the environment that increase the probability of a behaviour being be repeated
* Can be negative or positive
152
What are Punishers as a Consequence in Operant Conditioning?
Consequences from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated
153
What is Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
* Encourage a repetition of a desired behaviour
| * A central component of operant conditioning
154
What are Primary Reinforcers in Operant Conditioning?
Rewards that are focused on meeting a basic need
155
What are Secondary Reinforcers in Operant Conditioning?
Rewards that can satisfy a basic need but it’s not in itself a basic need
156
What are the 2 Main types of Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
* Positive reinforcement
| * Negative reinforcement
157
What is Positive Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Something good is given in response to the behaviour
158
What is Negative Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Something bad is taken away in response to behaviour
159
What are Punishments in Operant Conditioning?
Are used to discourage behaviour
160
What is Positive Punishment in Operant Conditioning?
Something bad/undesired is given + unwanted behaviour is stopped
161
What is Negative Punishment in Operant Conditioning?
Something good/desired is taken away and the unwanted behaviour is stopped
162
What is a Difficulty with Punishment in Operant Conditioning?
It doesn’t promote or give info about the desired behaviour - it only stops undesirable behaviour
163
What is the main Essence of Operant Conditioning?
Behaviour is learnt through positive + negative reinforcements
164
How does the Theory of Operant Conditioning account For Individual Differences?
* Reinforcement occur in an individual’s environment
* Everyone’s environment is different
* So, accounts for individual differences
165
How does the Theory of Operant Conditioning account For Determinism?
* Individuals aren’t in control of their environment + upbringing
* So, the concept of free will is an ilusión + behaviour is a consequence of learning from the environment which an individual doesn’t have a control of
166
How are the Issues of Social Control Associated with Operant Conditioning?
OC suggests behaviour can be shaped by environment forces - behaviour can be manipulated by others through social control
167
What is an Example of how the Issues of Social Control are Associated with Operant Conditioning?
* Skinner discusses how societies could exercise control over their citizens by using schedules of reinforcement
* Mean that citizens become more productive at their work if they’re rewarded more through reinforcers or become less responsive if punished
168
What are Token Economy Systems in Operant Conditioning?
A treatment method that provides secondary reinforcement for a desirable behaviour that can be saved up or exchanged for a primary reinforcer
169
What is the main Aim of Token Economy Systems in Operant Conditioning?
Encourage desired behaviour through a system of reward + reduce undesired behaviour through punishment
170
What is Selective Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Some desirable behaviour are encouraged whilst others are extinguished
171
What are the Tokens in Economies in Operant Conditioning?
* Secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for primary reinforcers
* The tokens are given in response for showing desired behaviour
172
How does the Token Economy System work in a School in Operant Conditioning?
* Merit
* House points
* Points
* Extra break time
173
How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as Reductionist?
* It focuses only on positive + negative reinforces to an explanation of human behaviour
* But, it ignores biological + cognitive influences and involved in behaviour
174
How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as Unethical?
Skinner caused unnecessary suffering w/ his use of electric shocks on animals
175
How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as Ethical?
* Costs to the animals are outweighed by the many applications of Skinner’s research that have made human life easier
* E.g. training or guide dogs
176
How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as having Low Ecological Validity?
* The organisms learn in far more complex environments than a Skinner box
* So setting is not realistic
* Limits the credibility as an explanation of human behaviour
177
How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as having Low Generalisability?
* Skinner’s research used rats + pigeons as participants
* Animals have different everyday experiences from humans + they don’t have the cognitive abilities of humans
* E.g. language - so learning experiences will be different
* The theory doesn’t take in to account the fact that human learning is influenced by cognitive abilities + social behaviours
178
What are the Practical Applications of the Theory of Operant Conditioning?
* Provides an explanation for how different behaviours are learnt - e.g. addiction to drugs
* So, tells us how behaviour can be changed through reinforcers
* Also, it’s useful in the education + criminal justice system + treatments for dysfunctional behaviours
* E.g. Paul + Lentz (1997) showed benefits of token economy systems for the treatment of patients w/ schizophrenia
179
How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as having High Reliability?
* Skinner box used standardised procedures
* So, Skinner could replicate his research over + over again
* Which conformed the consistency of his findings
180
How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning Highly Falsifiable?
The concepts of the theory - reinforcement + punishment - are clearly defined allowing testable predictions to be made
181
How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as having High Internal Validity?
* Skinner’s research was carried out in a lab setting w/ high levels of controls
* E.g. use of Skinner’s box allowed for manipulation of reward + punishments to be given in controlled environment to manipulate behaviour - allowed Skinner to estable cause + effect links
* Accuracy of data is high
* Provides theory w/ credibility
182
How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as having High Empiricism?
* Skinner only studied directly observable behaviour
* Data gathered in research was quantitative - provides objective statistical evidence to confirm how behaviour is learnt
183
What did Paul + Lentz Investigate which Outlines Issues of Social Control in Operant Conditioning?
Investigated effectiveness of operant conditioning by reinforcing appropriate behaviours w/ 83 schizophrenic patients
184
What was Paul + Lentz’s Procedure which Outlines Issues of Social Control in Operant Conditioning?
Schizophrenic patients were given tokens as rewards when they behaved appropriately + these exchanged for luxury items
185
What did Paul + Lentz Find which Outlines Issues of Social Control in Operant Conditioning?
* Token economy reduced some schizophrenic symptoms such as bizarre motor tics
* Was successful in improving interpersonal skills + self care
186
How did Paul + Lentz’s study Raise important Issues of Social Control in Operant Conditioning?
* Some argue that it’s not morally correct for a person to control behaviours of others
* Some argue that the experiment violated the patients basic human rights
* But, patients had their rights + freedom of choice w/ regard to the treatment options constrained by the token economy
187
What are Schedules of Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
There are different patterns of reinforcement which have different effects on the speed of learning + whether extension occurs
188
What happens if there is No Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning and Why does this happen?
* Then that behaviour may become extinct
| * Because positive reinforcement has been removed + therefore the behaviour becomes extinct
189
What is Response Rate in Operant Conditioning and give an Example?
* The rate at which the rat pressed the lever
| * E.g. how hard the rat worked
190
What is Extinction Rate in Operant Conditioning and give an Example?
* The rate at which the lever pressing dies out
| * E.g. how hard the rats gave up
191
What did Skinner propose Continuous Reinforcement is in Operant Conditioning?
When behaviour is rewarded or punished each time it occurred
192
What is the Response Rate for Continuous Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Slow
193
What is the Response Rate for Fixed Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Fast
194
What is the Response Rate for Fixed Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Medium
195
What is the Response Rate for Variable Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Fast
196
What is the Response Rate for Variable Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Fast
197
What is the Extinction Rate for Continuous Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Fast
198
What is the Extinction Rate for Fixed Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Medium
199
What is the Extinction Rate for Fixed Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Medium
200
What is the Extinction Rate for Variable Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Slow
201
What is the Extinction Rate for Variable Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Slow
202
What is the Description of Fixed Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Behaviour is reinforced only after the behaviour occurs a set number of times
203
What is the Description of Fixed Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least 1 correct response has been made
204
What is the Description of Variable Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
The reinforcement or punishment is given randomly with regards to the number of responses achieved
205
What is the Description of Variable Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
The reinforcement is given after variable amounts of time - can be given at 1 or 2 or 5 mins
206
What are the 4 Schedules of Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
* Fixed ratio reinforcement
* Fixed interval reinforcement
* Variable ratio reinforcement
* Variable interval reinforcement
207
What are the Applications in Individual Differences for the Schedules of Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning and give an Example?
* How people differ because of different environmental influences + experiences
* E.g. in the form of rewards + punishments
208
What is the Description of Extinction in Operant Conditioning?
When there is no reinforcement so that behaviour has to become extinct
209
What is a Human Example of Fixed Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
* Teacher gives a gold star to pupils for every 2 pieces of writing they do
* Up to 8 good pieces of writing during this day
210
What is a Human Example of Fixed Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
Teacher gives a gold star every 2 hours in class to each child who has done good work
211
What is a Human Example of Variable Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
* Teacher gives out 2 gold stars to pupils every day - but they have to do 8 good pieces of work
* But, they don’t know how many pieces they have to do to get 1 gold star
212
What is a Human Example of Variable Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?
* Teacher gives out 2 gold stars to pupils every day provided they do 8 pieces of work
* But, they don’t know at what time they going to receive their gold stars
213
What is the Description of Shaping in Operant Conditioning?
Using operant conditioning in the form of rewards or punishment to form a complex behaviour that wouldn’t occur as a whole naturally so couldn’t be reinforced itself
214
What is Behaviour Modification in Operant Conditioning?
When rewards or punishments are planned so that certain behaviours are produced and others are dropped
215
What is the Main way of Modifying Behaviour in Operant Conditioning?
Shaping
216
What is the Process of Shaping in Operant Conditioning?
* Rewarding moves towards the desired behaviour
* Waiting for an action that is nearer to the desired behaviour before a reward is given
* Waiting for the actual behaviour before offering the reinforcement
217
What is the Example of the Squirrels Behaviour being Shaped in Operant Conditioning?
* Squirrel taught to complete an assault course
| * Necessary to reward each part of the course until the squirrel had learnt the whole course
218
What is the Example of the Pigeon’s Behaviour being Shaped in Operant Conditioning?
* Pigeon is rewarded for pecking near the ground
* Reinforcement is withheld until the pecking is near the ball
* Reward (food) isn’t given until the ball is hit + until the ball hits the pins
219
If you Modify Behaviour, What do you Change Something by in Operant Conditioning?
* Extinguish undesirable behaviours- by removing the reinforcer
* Replace original behaviour w/ desirable behaviour + reinforce it
220
Why did Skinner further Behaviour Modification with Successive Approximations in Operant Conditioning?
To reward all the small desirable behaviours that you wish to see reinforced
221
How can Behaviour Modification and Shaping be Applied to Humans in Operant Conditioning?
Can be used when treating individuals w/ ADHD + OCD for their target behaviour to be achieved
222
What are the Main Components that Operant Conditioning Covers?
* Shaping
* Token economies
* Schedules of reinforcement
* Positive + negative punishment
* Positive + negative reinforcement
223
What is a Social Phobia in Operant Conditioning?
* A marked fear of social situations
| * E.g. parties college shopping centres
224
How could someone Aquire a Phobia through a pattern of Rewards in Operant Conditioning?
If a fear of something is rewarded - like getting attention for it then the response is likely to occur again
225
How could someone Aquire a Phobia through a pattern of Punishments in Operant Conditioning?
Giving negative consequences to an action that leads to the phobia would mean learning through negative reinforcement which could cause pain or fear
226
What is the Aim of the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?
To test out whether or not classical conditioning occurs in humans
227
What did Watson + Rayner want to find in their study in Classical Conditioning?
* Whether you can condition fear of an animal by simultaneously presenting the animal
* Whether the fear would be transferred to other animals + objects
* The effects of time on the conditioned response
228
What was the Background of Little Albert from the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?
* He lived a normal life
* He was healthy
* He was solid + unemotional
* He weighed 21 pounds at 9 months
229
When Albert was 9 months old what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?
* He was shown neutral stimuli - rat, rabbit, cotton wool
* He produced a neutral response
* He was exposed to a loud bang in form of a metal bar being hit w/ a hammer
* Which produced a fear response - crying fit
230
When Albert was 11 months old and 3 days what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?
* He was exposed to the rat again
* He produces a neutral response
* When he tried to touch the rat, the bar was struck
* He produced a startled response - jumping violently forward but didn’t cry
231
When Albert was 11 months old and 10 days what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?
* Rat + loud band were paired together 5 times
* Then, the rat was presented on its own
* Albert immediately, turned + crawled away - signs of a fear response
232
When Albert was 11 months old and 15 days what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?
* He was presented w/ objects similar to the rat
* E.g. rabbit, dog, fur coat, cotton wool, santa mask
* He showed signs of fear - whimpering, trembling, crying
* But, when presented to stimulus not similar to rat - blocks - Albert showed no fear + played well
233
When Albert was 11 months old and 20 days what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?
* There was a weakened association as the rat produced a less marked response
* So, researcher renewed association - banging the bar w/ seeing the rat
* Albert showed fear to the rat, dog, but not to the rabbit
* In another environment - paired rabbit + dog w/ the loud band + Albert produced a fear response
234
When Albert was 1 year old and 21 days what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?
* Researcher wanted to know if fear had lasted longer than 1 month
* Albert produced a fear response for the Santa mask, dog, rabbit, fur coat, rat
* But, positive response w/ the blocks
235
What was the Conclusion of the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?
* Conditioned response of fear can occur in humans after a few pairings of stimulus - but pairings might need to be repeated
* Conditioned response can be transferred to other similar objects
236
What were the main Results in the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?
The fear of the white rat + other similar animals + objects can be explained using classical conditioning principles
237
How does the study of Watson + Rayner that supports Classical Conditioning have Low Generalisability?
* It was a case study - only 1 individual- Little Albert
* Study only representative of 1 person, so results not generalisable
* He was only 9 months old - so not clear if adults would respond to classical conditioning in the same way
238
How does the study of Watson + Rayner that supports Classical Conditioning have High Reliability?
* The methodology was simple + well documented step by step
* So, easily replicated
* E.g. Albert was exposed to loud noises + the rat in set of standardised procedures based on Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning
239
What are the Applications for the study of Watson + Rayner that supports Classical Conditioning?
* Provide explanation of how a fear response is learnt
* If it’s learnt, it can also be unlearnt through treatment based on classical conditioning
* Given important therapy for phobias e.g. systematic desensitisation
* Underpins the 1 of the most effective way to treat anxiety = cognitive behavioural therapy
240
How does the study of Watson + Rayner that supports Classical Conditioning have High Internal Validity?
* Study was scientific + carried out in lab conditions w/ high levels of control
* E.g. use of blocks as a baseline to show Albert played perfectly normally when given objects that had not been conditioned
* Cause + effect links are made showing fear responses can be made
* So, provides evidence to support psychology as a science
241
How does the study of Watson + Rayner that supports Classical Conditioning have Low Ecological Validity?
* Study done in very controlled conditions - the small quiet room
* Most babies learn in far more complex environments
* They controlled the stimuli he was exposed to throughout the study
* But, at the end of the study Albert was actually moved into a bigger room with people in it
242
How was the study of Watson + Rayner Unethical?
* Albert was psychologically harmed
* E.g. on many occasions he was described as ‘crying’ + ‘whimpering’ in response to stimuli like the rat + dog
* No informed consent
* E.g. it’s not made clear how much his mother/father knew of what happened
243
What was the Unconditioned Stimulus at 11 months age + 10 days in the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?
The loud bang
244
Throughout Conditioning Process what is the Conditioned Stimulus in the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?
The rat
245
What was all the different Stimuli used in the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?
* Rabbit
* Dog
* Fur coat
* Santa mask
* Cotton wool
* Rat
* Blocks
246
What is Fear in Classical Conditioning?
One of the 6 universal emotions which every human has
247
Where have the 6 Universal Emotions Developed through in Classical Conditioning?
* Evolutionary needs - nature
| * Environmental factors - nurture
248
What is the Purpose of the Fear Emotion in Classical Conditioning?
* It serves a protective purpose
| * Activates the ‘fight’ or ‘flight’ response
249
In terms of Evolution, How was the Fight or Flight response Effective?
For keeping people alive when they encountered dangerous situations which required a response
250
What can Fears Escalate and Develop into?
Phobias
251
What are the Natural Fears you have at the age of 0-2 years according to Classical Conditioning?
* Loud noises
* Being alone
* Strangers
* Unfamiliar objects
252
What are the Natural Fears you have at the age of 3-6 years according to Classical Conditioning?
* Ghosts
* Imaginary things
* Monsters
* Strange noises
253
What are the Natural Fears you have at the age of 7-16 years according to Classical Conditioning?
* Death
* Exams
* Illness
* Injury
* More realistic fears
254
What is Classified a Phobia in Classical Conditioning?
* Fear of object,item,situation is persistent that affects the persons functioning every day
* Exposure to the phobic stimulus provokes immediate anxiety response - form of crying, panic attack, freezing or running away
* Object,item,situation is excessively avoided
* These symptoms present for at least 6 months
255
What is the Phobia of Social Phobia in Classical Conditioning?
Fear of interacting w/ other people
256
What is the Phobia of Agoraphobia in Classical Conditioning?
Fear of open public places
257
What is the Phobia of Emetophobia in Classical Conditioning?
Fear of vomiting
258
What is the Phobia of Erythrophobia in Classical Conditioning?
Fear of blushing
259
What is the Phobia of Vehophobia in Classical Conditioning?
Fear of driving
260
What is the Phobia of Hypochondria in Classical Conditioning?
Fear of illness
261
What is the Phobia of Aerophobia in Classical Conditioning?
Fear of flying
262
What is the Phobia of Arachnophobia in Classical Conditioning?
Fear of spiders
263
What is the Phobia of Zoophobia in Classical Conditioning?
Fear of animals
264
What is the Phobia of Claustrophobia in Classical Conditioning?
Fear of small/tight spaces
265
How does Classical Conditioning explain the Acquisition of a Phobia according to Watson + Rayner’s Research?
Through the process of classical conditioning + the pairing of an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus can bring about a conditioned emotional response - which can be a fear response that turns into a phobia over time
266
How does the Classical Conditioning explain the Maintenance of a Phobia?
Pairing between the unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus would have to be renewed occasionally
267
How does the Classical Conditioning in Watson + Rayner’s Study explain the Maintenance of a Phobia?
* Little Albert conditioned to fear the rat
* But, at 11 months 20 days of age they found the fear of the rat (neutral stimuli) was less marked
* So, they paired the rat w/ the loud noise (unconditioned stimuli) + renewed the conditioned fear response to the rat (conditioned stimulus)
268
How many people have Phobias in the UK?
10 million people
269
What are the 2 Types of Therapy for Phobias in Classical Conditioning?
* Flooding therapy
| * Systematic densitisation
270
Who Developed Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
Wolpe
271
What is the Process of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
* Step by step process where an individual w/ phobia becomes more familiar w/ the feared object, item, situation
* It’s carried out over a period of time
272
How Long is the Process of Systematic Densitisation carried out for in Classical Conditioning?
Over a period of time - Number of weeks
273
What is the Goal of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
An individual being able to be face their feared stimulus in a calm manner
274
WIth Systematic Densitisation, What are the other skills which are Taught to Help an individual Face their Fear in Classical Conditioning?
Taught how to relax their muscles - progressive muscle relaxation
275
In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, what is the Definition of Systematic?
Gradually facing up to phobic object
276
In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, what is the Definition of Densitisation?
Brought about by relaxation techniques
277
In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, what is the Definition of In Vivo?
Being exposed to a real object
278
In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, what is the Definition of In Vitro?
Being exposed to an imaginary object
279
In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, what is the Definition of Progressive Muscle Relaxation?
Relaxation technique used to calm muscles
280
In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, How can Individuals be Gradually re-introduced to their feared Stimulus?
In vivo or in vitro
281
Over the Weeks of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, What should happen?
The individuals anxiety should reduce and would be less fearful of the stimulus since the learned stimulus + response links will now be broken as the new association has been learnt
282
Using Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, What is the Process of Treating people with Anxiety of Spiders?
* Week 1 - discuss about spiders
* Week 2 - look at pictures + videos of spiders
* Week 3 - be in same room of the spider
* Week 4 - go close to the spider
* Week 5 - hold the spider
283
What are the Strengths of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
* Ethical
* Generalisable
* Useful
* Based upon scientific research methodology
284
What are the Weaknesses of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
* Reductionist
| * Reduce the applications of the findings
285
What is an Example of how Generalisability is a Strength of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
* Fear of spiders, dogs, flying - demonstrated through research by Capafons (1998)
* Capafons found that it’s effective for treating fear of flying
286
What is an Example of how A lot of Scientific Research is a Strength of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
* McGrath (1990) found that 75% of individuals w/ phobias respond to this therapy
* Systematic Densitisation is the preferred treatment w/ the NHS
287
How is Ethics a Strengths of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
* Exposure to the feared stimulus is gradual + agreed w/ the individual prior to exposure
* Individual is involved in how the treatment is carried out - enables them to feel empowered + involved
288
What is the Alternative Therapy to Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
Virtual Reality Therapy by Freeman
289
How is Individual Differences a Weakness of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
* The therapy doesn’t suit everyone - not everyone can learn how to relax easily
* Can’t be applied to people who have more generalised anxiety disorders as situations/objects must be clearly identifiable for it to work
290
How is Reductionism a Weakness of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
* It assumes all phobias are caused by classical conditioning
* So, more complex cognitive process lie behind some phobias
* Original research used animals
291
How is Limited Applications a Weakness of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?
* Less effective at treating phobias that have an underlying survival component
* E.g. fear of dark, heights
* As, they may be deep rooted fears that enables survival in our evolutionary past
* So, ineffective in treating evolutionary phobias
292
What did Freeman Study that supports Virtual Reality Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
* Conducted a trail that hopes to treat millions w/ mental heath problems w/ a machine at home
* Patients see a virtual coach who teaches them about fear of heights
* They guide patients through real life situations using the principles of cognitive behavioural therapy
293
What was Evidence from Freeman that his machine Worked that supports Virtual Reality Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
Patients who suffered a fear of height for 30 years were able to climb steep mountains + cross rope bridges in the real world after treatment
294
What is Aversion Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
* Targets dysfunctional behaviours - e.g. addictions
* To treat - you need to recondition the stimulus of the addiction w/ an aversion stimulus
* Aversion stimuli creates an undesired emotion of dislike when presented w/ condition stimulus to ensure the behaviour will not be repeated
295
How has Aversion Therapy in Classical Conditioning been Used in the Past?
* To try + convert homosexuals to heterosexuality
* Administered electric shocks when men look at pictures of naked men
* No electric shocks administered when men look at naked pictures of women
* But, that’s illegal now
296
How has Aversion Therapy in Classical Conditioning Dangerous?
* Gay man - Billy Clegg-Hill died from a coma
| * Caused by injections of a drug that were given to make him sick during aversion therapy so he would turn straight
297
What is Flooding as a Treatment of a Phobia in Classical Conditioning?
* Exposure therapy
| * It involves exposing an individual to their feared stimulus all at once
298
Who Created Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
Thomas Stampfl
299
What is Flooding in Classical Conditioning?
Direct, prolonged exposure to a fearful situation or experience
300
What is Implosion in Classical Conditioning?
Prolonged exposure to the phobic situation/experience by imagining the feared stimuli
301
In Classical Conditioning, what does Flooding Therapy use the Idea that?
Phobia response is caused by an alarm reaction + these emotions have certain longevity before they subside
302
What is the Alarm reaction in Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
* Biological reaction
| * Giving the organism engery to fight or flee from the situation
303
How does the Alarm reaction in Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning Work in your body?
* Blood sugar available + digestion tend to cease as the body goes into a high alert stage
* As body uses up all blood sugar it will start to calm
304
What happens when your Body starts to Calm from the Alarm reaction in Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
* The parasympathetic nervous system begins to work
| * So, it will calm the sympathetic nervous system
305
What is the Process of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
* Phobic individual placed in a feared situation for a prolonged period
* They’re prevented from the normally rewarding pattern of escape
* With enough exposure to the feared stimulus - extinction of the fear response should occur as feared stimulus doesn’t cause any harm
306
What are the Strengths of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
* Reliable
* Useful
* Based upon scientific research methodology
307
What are the Weakness of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
* Ethical
| * Reduce the application of the findings
308
How is Social Control Weakness of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
Therapist in control of the client - they aren’t allowed to leave the fearful situation
309
How are Applications a Weakness of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
* It is useful for phobias, but not for treatment for other mental health difficulties
* Some clients report improvement, but others acquire more anxiety as it’s scary
310
How are Ethics a Weakness of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
* It’s trauma for the patient as the phobia is purposely put into a situation of great distress
* E.g. Wolpe’s study (1973) - although the girl eventually calm down she was hysterical for a large part of the journey but he kept driving her around
311
How is Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning an Effective a Method to Reduce individuals Fear?
* It’s fast + works quickly
| * E.g. Wolpe’s study (1973) - girl was afraid of cats + he drove her around for a few hours before she became calm
312
What are the Differences between Systematic Densitisation + Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
* SD is a gradual approach to the feared stimulus, whereas FT exposed the person to phobia all at once
* SD uses muscle relaxation techniques, whereas FT doesn’t
313
What are the Similarities between Systematic Densitisation + Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?
* Both useful
* Based on classical conditioning
* Their limitations of effectiveness are the same
314
What is the Classical Conditioning Contemporary Study?
Capafons (1998)
315
What is the Aim of Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
To validate the effectiveness of systematic densitisation as a treatment for a fear of flying + to assess the therapeutic success of systematic densitisation when applied to the specific phobia
316
What was the Sample in Total for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
41 participants via a media campaign
317
What was the Sample of the Treatment Group for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* 20 participants in total
* 8 males
* 12 females
* Mean age of 29 years old
318
What was the Sample of the Waiting List Group (Control) for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* 21 participants in total
* 9 males
* 11 females
* Mean age of 34 years old
319
What was the Conclusion for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* The intervention program as outlined guarantees for its uses in treatment for decreasing or eradicating the fear of flying
* So, process of systematic densitisation is an effective way of treating those of phobia of flying
320
What were the 2 Relaxation Techniques used in Treatment Sessions for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Breathing techniques
| * Progressive relaxation techniques
321
What Treatment did the participants Receive for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
Systematic densitisation
322
What were the Findings of the Intragroup analysis for the Waiting List Group for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* In self report scales, interview responses + physiological reactions in stimulation
* Shows that the more passing of time doesn’t lead to quantitative changes
323
What were the Findings of the Intragroup analysis for the Treatment Group for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Self report carried out before + after indicate significant changes + reduction in fear responses
* So, indicating the treatment is effective for those w/ fear of flying
324
What were the Results for the Intragroup analysis for the Waiting List Group and Treatment Groups Before Therapy for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
They were similar on self-reported tear levels + the psychophysical measures before treatment
325
What were the Results for the Intragroup analysis for the Waiting List Group and Treatment Groups After Therapy for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Scores significantly different for each group for practically all variables analysed
* Only 2 maintaining non-significant differences - fear without involvement + palm temperature
326
How Many Treatments did the Participants in the Treatment Condition Receive for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Max of 15 sessions
| * Min of 12 sessions
327
How were Participants Interviewed for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
Interviewed alone
328
What was the Content of the Video used in the Research for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Videotape of a plane trip
| * Made from a subjective perspective about a trip by a plane
329
What were the 2 Controls Used for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Temperature of room maintained at 22.5•C
| * Arm chair was positioned 1.8metres from a TV
330
What Materials were used for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* General diagnostic info on fear of flying
* Fear of flying scales
* Videotape of a plane trip
* Psychophysical recording instruments - measure muscular tension + temp of palm
331
What was Step 1 for the Method for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Participants interviewed individually by research team
* The interview subjects completed the diagnostic test + in other sessions the rest of measures were taken using the self-report method
332
What was Step 2 for the Method for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Participants watched video of the plane visit whilst undergoing psychophysical measurement •Ps responses were measured for a 3 minute period in the absence of phobic stimulus
* Patient proceeded to watch the video and was told to feel as involved as possible
333
What was Step 3 for the Method for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* For treatment group - another appointment was made for the presenting treatment
* For control group - the next assessment session
* Interval between the 1st + 2nd was 8 weeks for all the measures
334
What was Step 4 for the Method for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
•Ps which were receiving the treatment two 1 hour sessions per week as part of a standardised individual desensitisation programme
•In addition to training in techniques of breathing, progressive relaxation,
imagination
•The treatment combines imagination + in vivo elements
335
What was Step 5 for the Method for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
After 8 weeks - both groups came back to retake the questionnaires + stimulated video test to see if their fear had declined
336
What were the Strengths for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* High internal validity
* Useful for practical applications
* Ethical
* High in reliability
* Based upon scientific research methodology
337
What were the Weaknesses for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Generalisability
| * Ecological Validity - reduces the applications of the findings
338
How is Ethics a Strength for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* All Ps gave consent + were supported throughout the study
| * However, researchers made the control group wait some time for treatment
339
How is Ecological Validity a Weakness for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* It used controlled conditions
| * E.g. Ps used an artificial phobic stimulus so findings might not be accurate
340
How is Internal Validity a Strength for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* It uses scientific methods
* Experiment used strict controls in lab conditions
* Allows for control of extraneous variables
* E.g. Use of control group of ppl w/ fear of flying gives a baseline against differences in treatment groups fear can be compared
* So, can see differences that therapy made
* Objective, quantitative measures (heart rate) allowed precise physiological measurement of fear
* But, use of self reports can lower validity
341
What were the Applications for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Shows that systematic densitisation is effective therapy
* So, can apply to help individuals w/ this phobia
* But, individual differences are important + this therapy doesn’t work on everyone - 10% of the treatment group showed little improvement in their fear
342
How is Reliability a Strength for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Standardised procedures used
* E.g. temp of room was 22.5*C, armchair positioned 1.8metres from TV, same psychometrics used on each P
* So, study easily replicated + tested consistency of the findings
343
How is Generalisability a Weakness for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?
* Small sample - only 41 Ps + only 20 user in treatment condition
* Sample was self selected - biased
* E.g. Ps who volunteered may have wanted to cure their phobia - different to others - so, they may have responded well to the SD
* Sample not representative for everyone
* It’s questionable why her this study can tell us anything about the effectiveness of SD in treating phobias other than fear of flying
