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Learning Theories Flashcards

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1
Q

What is meant by the term ‘Tabula Rasa’?

A

Blank slate

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2
Q

What was the Aim of Watson + Rayner study?

A

•Whether or not classical conditioning occurs in humans

Wanted to find out:
• If they could condition fear of animal by simultaneously presenting the animal + making a loud noise to scare the child
•If fear would be transferred to other stimuli
•The effect of time on the conditioned response

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3
Q

What is meant by the term Nurture?

A

Environmental factors + social factors

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4
Q

When does learning theories suggest that all behaviour is learnt?

A

After birth

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5
Q

What does an experiment try to determine?

A

A difference in variables + cause and effect links

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6
Q

How does an experiment try to establish validity?

A

High level of controls

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7
Q

How does an experiment try to establish reliability?

A

Standardised procedures

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8
Q

Who was Classical Conditioning theory developed by?

A

Ivan Pavlov

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9
Q

What is an Unconditioned Stimulus?

A

A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response

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10
Q

What is an Conditioned Stimulus?

A

Previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated associated w/ US elicits response produced by US (unconditioned stimulus)

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11
Q

What is an Unconditioned Response?

A

Behaviour that occurs naturally due to a given stimulus

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12
Q

What is an Conditioned Response?

A

Automatic response established by training to an ordinary neutral stimulus

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13
Q

What is a Stimulus?

A

A external factor/event - can bring about a behaviour (response)

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14
Q

What is an Neutral Stimulus?

A

A stimulus that initially produces no specific response

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15
Q

What was the Aim of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?

A

Find out if a reflexive behaviour (salivation) can be produced in new situations through learning - see if associating a reflex with a neutral stimulus causes learning to take place

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16
Q

What was the Hypothesis of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?

A

Proposed that dogs would salivate when they see food - this could be paired w/ another stimulus in order to new behaviour

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17
Q

What was the Sample of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?

A

35 dogs raised in kennels in the lab

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18
Q

What was the Controls of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?

A
  • Each dog sealed in a room - can’t see/smell/heat outside - to prevent extraneous variables from making dog salivate
  • Dog strapped to harness to stop moving
  • Dogs mouth linked to a tube that drained saliva away into a measuring bottle
  • Careful set up to count how much saliva was produced
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19
Q

What was the Before Conditioning stage 1 of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?

A
  • Unconditioned stimulus - food

* Unconditioned response - salivation

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20
Q

What was the Before Conditioning stage 2 of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?

A
  • Neutral stimulus - whistle

* No conditioned response- no salivation

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21
Q

What was the During Conditioning stage 3 of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?

A
  • Neutral stimulus - whistle + unconditioned stimulus - food
  • Unconditioned response - salivation
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22
Q

What was the After Conditioning stage 4 of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?

A
  • Conditioned stimulus - whistle

* Conditioned response - salivation

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23
Q

What was the Conclusion of Pavlov’s Experiment with Salivation in Dogs (1927)?

A
  • Environmental stimuli that previously had no reaction to reflex action could, by repeated pairings, trigger salivation response
  • Through the process of associative learning the conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned response - new behaviour learnt
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24
Q

What does the Classical Conditioning Theory propose?

A

Learning a new behaviour is a process of association so 2 stimuli are linked together to produce a newly learned response

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25
Q

What is Stage 1 Before Conditioning in the Classical Conditioning Theory?

A
  • Unconditioned stimulus produces an unconditioned response
  • So, stimulus produced a behaviour which is unlearned
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26
Q

What is Stage 2 Before Conditioning in the Classical Conditioning Theory?

A
  • The neutral stimulus produces a neutral response

* Another stimulus has no specific effect on an organism

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27
Q

What is Stage 3 During Conditioning in the Classical Conditioning Theory?

A
  • Stimulus that produces no specific response is presented with the unconditioned stimulus
  • USC associated with CS on number of occasions
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28
Q

What is Stage 4 After Conditioning in the Classical Conditioning Theory?

A

•Conditioned stimulus has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus to create a new conditioned response

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29
Q

What is Extinction in the Classical Conditioning Theory?

A
  • The associated can disappear between CS and CR

* Can happen when paired stimulus is separated and the learned response is no longer carried out

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30
Q

What is Spontaneous Recovery in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • After extinción, association recurs for no reason
  • The CS suddenly produces the response that was conditioned previously
  • The reappearance is the spontaneous recovery
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31
Q

What is Stimulus Generation in Classical Conditioning?

A

CS produces the same behaviour to a similar situation after the response has been conditioned

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32
Q

What Positive Evidence is there to Support the Classical Conditioning theory?

A
  • Pavlov (1927) - showed how it can b used to make a dog salivate to the sounds
  • Watson + Rayner (1920) - showed how it could explain emotional responses in a human child
  • Brain scanning revealing ‘reward centres’ in the brain that activate when pleasant learned associations are formed
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33
Q

What are the Positives of the Methodology in the Classical Conditioning Theory?

A
  • Scientifically credible
  • Based on empirical evidence in controlled experiments
  • Strict control of extraneous variables
  • Directly observable behaviours- every step in the process is discernible
  • Complex behaviour broken down into small stimulus response units - scientific
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34
Q

What are the Applications for the Classical Conditioning Theory?

A

Effective treatment for dysfunctional behaviours - for aversion therapy + systematic desensitisation

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35
Q

What are the Negatives of the Methodology of Classical Conditioning Theory?

A
  • Not generalisable as Pavlov used dogs

* Reductionist - lacks validity - it can lead to incomplete explanations of Human behaviour

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36
Q

What is the Evidence Against the Classical Conditioning Theory?

A

Deterministic:
•Doesn’t allow for any degree of free will in the individual
•Underestimates the uniqueness and of human beings + their freedom to choose their own behaviours

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37
Q

What are the Reasons to Use Animals in Experiments?

A
  • Easy to handle
  • Can learn something new which it is fairly certain that they haven’t experienced before
  • Lab studies have strict controls - high validity
  • Experiments are easy to repeat - high reliability
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38
Q

What are the Problems with Using Animals in Experiments?

A
  • Brain differences between humans + animals - differences = low generalisability
  • Ethically, rights of animals should be acknowledged - adherence to animals act
  • Animals different from each other + will always respond differently
  • Lab studied are carried out in artificial environments - findings lack ecological validity
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39
Q

What is Observational Research?

A

Focuses on the observation of a persons freely chosen behaviour

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40
Q

What are Naturalistic Observations?

A

Behaviour is studied in its natural setting + environment is left as it normally is with no manipulation by the researcher

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41
Q

What are Structured Observations?

A

•Some of variables are controlled
- e.g. environment
•May be in a lab setting
•Situations may be set up or structured in some way

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42
Q

What are the 2 Main Types of Observation?

A
  • Naturalistic

* Structured

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43
Q

What are the Advantages of Naturalistic Observations?

A
  • High ecological validity as the setting is natural
  • High un internal validity as the data gathered can be very rich + detailed - it can gather data on all that happens in a real life situation
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44
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observations?

A

•Lack of control over extraneous variables - so cause + effect relationship can’t be established •Ethical considerations concerning deception + consent + invasion of privacy + right to withdrawal can be serious issues

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45
Q

What are the Advantages of Structured Observations?

A

•More control over environment which leads to more accurate observations as highly standardised procedures can be put in place •Easier replication so results have higher reliability

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46
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Structured Observations?

A
  • Lab experiment so ecological validity is lower

* Cannot see cause + effect between IV + DV as there may be problems controlling variables

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47
Q

What are participant observations?

A

When observer becomes part of a group

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48
Q

What are the advantages of participant observation?

A
  • High ecological validity - so, participants act normally

* Rich data and more meaningful

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49
Q

What are the disadvantages of participant observations?

A
  • Researcher become too involved - so, becomes less objective + influence natural behaviours
  • Difficult to record all observations
  • Ethical issues - deception + invasion of privacy
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50
Q

What are Covert research methods?

A

When participants don’t know that being observed

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51
Q

What is an advantage of covert research methods?

A
  • Higher validity as behaviour more natural

* Demand characteristics lower •High ecological validity - study participants in their natural environment

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52
Q

What is a disadvantage of covert research methods?

A

Ethical issues:
• difficult to gain consent + debriefing + deception + no right to withdraw + invasion of privacy as they are secretly observed

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53
Q

What is the research method of collecting quantitative data?

A

In the form of numbers collected for statistical analysis

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54
Q

What is an advantage of the research method of collecting quantitative data?

A
  • Objective as not stating your opinion
  • Quick + easy
  • High in ecological validity as no altered environment
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55
Q

What is a disadvantage of the research method of collecting quantitative data?

A
  • No rich + detailed info

* No informed consent

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56
Q

What are Non Participant Observations?

A

When the observer isn’t involved in the action

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57
Q

What are the Advantages of Non Participant Observations?

A
  • Higher objectivity + accuracy of data + amount of data collected is high
  • Validity high as observer focuses on data collection
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58
Q

What are the Disadvantages of Non Participant Observations?

A
  • Validity lowered - observer has little understanding of what’s happening
  • Ethical issues - no consent, invasion of privacy, etc
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59
Q

What are overt research methods?

A

When the observer is known to be present

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60
Q

What are the advantages of overt research methods?

A

•Good place to observe can be discussed
Ethical:
•Gain consent
•Can debrief

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61
Q

What are the disadvantages of overt research methods?

A
  • Behaviour may change - social desirability + increased effects of demand characteristics
  • Observer may be distracted so data recorded may not be accurate
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62
Q

What is the research method of collecting qualitative data?

A
  • Writing down notes on all that the observer sees + hears

* Normally continuous behaviour sampling

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63
Q

What is the advantages of research method of collecting qualitative data?

A

Rich + detailed data - increases validity

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64
Q

What is the disadvantages of research method of collecting qualitative data?

A
  • Time consuming

* Hard to replicate as subjective

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65
Q

What is Inter-Observer Reliability ?

A

Extent to which the recorder observations of two observers are consistent

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66
Q

What are the 2 main methods of sampling behaviour which gain quantitative data?

A
  • Event sampling

* Time sampling

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67
Q

What is Event Sampling?

A

Recording certain behaviour every time it occurs in a target group/individual throughout observation period

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68
Q

What is a Strength of Event Sampling?

A

Quantitative data is easy to analyse which limits the behaviours that need to be observed

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69
Q

What is a Weakness of Event Sampling?

A
  • Difficult to observe all events if there is a large number of people to observe
  • May miss out on certain behaviours
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70
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Recording target behaviours for set lengths of time at set intervals

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71
Q

What is an advantage of time sampling?

A
  • Quick - reduce boredom + fatigue

* So, increasing accuracy as no demand characteristics

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72
Q

What is a disadvantage of time sampling?

A

Important instances of the target behaviour may be missed unless sampling is carefully planned

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73
Q

What is continuous sampling?

A

Observer records every instance of behaviour

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74
Q

What is an advantage of continuous sampling?

A
  • Rich + detailed info as qualitative
  • So, can give an insight + understanding
  • Useful if behaviour of interest doesn’t occur very often
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75
Q

What is a disadvantage of continuous sampling?

A
  • Too many behaviours to take notes on
  • Time consuming
  • Data cannot be analysed statistically as qualitative data
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76
Q

What are the Ethical Issues in Observational Research?

A
  • No informed consent - Ps don’t know they’re being observed
  • Some could be considered an invasion of privacy
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77
Q

How to deal with the Ethical Issues in Observational Research?

A

Debrief the participants afterwards - explaining the aims of the study + asking their permission to use the data

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78
Q

How to deal with threats to validity in observational research?

A
  • Behaviour must be clearly operationalised
  • Behaviour checklists must be planned + piloted
  • Using more than 1 observer + conducting observations in various settings - reduces observer bias
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79
Q

How to deal with threats to reliability in observational research?

A
  • Pilot studies used to train observers in the use of the recording systems
  • They should practice using the observation systems
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80
Q

How is Reliability in observational research Low?

A
  • Researcher effects/observer bias leads to low inter-observer reliability
  • So, observers’ categorisation of the same behaviour does not agree
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81
Q

How is validity in observational research Low?

A

•If coding systems used is flawed, vague, ambitious •Researcher/observer bias in which the way they record their observations is subjective

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82
Q

What is the behaviour sampling technique which gains qualitative data?

A

Continuous observation

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83
Q

What is the Title for the Practical Report?

A

An observation to investigate the gender differences of drivers behaviour

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84
Q

What is the Aim for the Practical Report?

A

A naturalistic observation is to investigate whether there are gender differences in drivers behaviours whilst they are at a set of traffic lights

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85
Q

What are the 4 Variables that were Measured Quantitatively in the Practical Report?

A
  • Looking in mirror
  • Looking at phone
  • Fixing radio/using it
  • Drinking/eating
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86
Q

What is the Alternate Hypothesis (Ha) for the Practical Report?

A

Significant difference between males + female drivers behaviour whilst they are waiting at a set of traffic lights w/ a focus on the differences of these variables: looking in the mirror, looking at phone, fixing radio/using it, drinking or eating

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87
Q

What is the Null Hypothesis for the Practical Report?

A

No significant difference between males + female drivers behaviour whilst they are waiting at a set of traffic lights w/ a focus on the differences of these variables: looking in the mirror, looking at phone, fixing radio/using it, drinking or eating

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88
Q

What was the Sampling Technique used for the Practical Report?

A

Opportunity sampling

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89
Q

What was Opportunity Sampling used as the Sampling Technique for the Practical Report?

A

Easy + convenient - allowing data to be collected quickly

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90
Q

What was the Sample used in the Practical Report?

A
  • Male + female
  • Over 17
  • Driving through Reigate
  • Monday at 2:30 in Feb
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91
Q

What was a Strength of the Sample used in the Practical Report?

A
  • Both sexes sampled

* So, we can compare the difference of learnt behaviour between the genders

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92
Q

What was a Weakness of the Sample used in the Practical Report?

A
  • All participants driving through Reigate
  • So, findings might not generalise to other parts of UK or other countries
  • So, low in generalisability
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93
Q

What were the Ethical Issues for the Practical Report?

A
  • Deception
  • No debriefing
  • No right to withdraw
  • Informed consent not given
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94
Q

What were the Materials used for the Practical Report?

A
  • Stop clock w/ timer
  • Pens/pencils
  • Clipboard
  • Data collection sheet w/ table for quantitative data
  • Data collection sheet w/ table for qualitative data
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95
Q

How many Participants were used for the Practical Report?

A
  • 149 in total
  • 62 females
  • 87 males
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96
Q

What happened when the Observation was Completed for the Practical Report?

A
  • Observers collected all results

* Qualitative + quantitative data was then analysed

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97
Q

How large was the Teams of Observers for the Practical Report?

A

Team of 3-4 people

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98
Q

What were the Different Roles for the Practical Report?

A
  • Recording quantitative data
  • Recording qualitative data
  • Timing
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99
Q

What was the Procedure for the Practical Report?

A
  • Observers positioned themselves either in a bench outside college, high street, traffic lights near cinema or T junction
  • Started the timer + observed for 30 mins
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100
Q

What was the Statistical Test used for the Practical Report?

A

Chi-square

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101
Q

What is the Practical Report tearing for?

A

Difference of driving behaviour between genders

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102
Q

What Level of Measurement was the Data for the Practical Report?

A

Nominal data - as it was recorded in categories

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103
Q

Was the data Related Or Unrelated for the Practical Report?

A

Unrelated data/groups

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104
Q

What is the Level of Significance for the Practical Report Study?

A

0.05

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105
Q

What was the Critical Value for the Practical Report Study?

A

7.82

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106
Q

What was the Observed Value for the Practical Report Study?

A

0.683

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107
Q

What was Degrees of Freedom for the Practical Report Study?

A

3

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108
Q

Was the Practical Report Study One Tailed Or Two Tailed?

A

Two tailed

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109
Q

Which Hypothesis is Accepted for the Practical Report Study for the Quantitative Data?

A
  • Null hypothesis

* As, no significant difference in driving behaviours of males + females in Reigate Highstreet

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110
Q

What is the Statement of Significance for the Practical Report Study?

A

Due to the observed value being 0.683 it’s lower than the critical value when the DF was 3 at 0.05% level of significance for a 2 tailed test.

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111
Q

What is Thematic Analysis?

A

Identifying and assessing patterns of qualitative data allowing conclusions to be drawn

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112
Q

What is Qualitative Data?

A

Form of words and tells us what people think/feel based on what they say/write

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113
Q

What’s Quantitative Data?

A

Form of numbers + quantifies the behaviour being studied through measuring it a numerical basis

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114
Q

What were the Main themes Identified for Males + Females for the Practical Report Study?

A
  • Interpersonal behaviour - males have higher as they stare more
  • Intrapersonal behaviour - more evidence of this for females
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115
Q

What is Interpersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?

A

Behaviour taking place with others

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116
Q

What is Intrapersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?

A

Behaviour taking place with individual

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117
Q

How have Males shown Intrapersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?

A

Touching objects

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118
Q

How have Males shown Interpersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?

A
  • Laughing
  • Talking
  • Staring - angry/normal
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119
Q

How have Females shown Intrapersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?

A
  • Touching objects

* Looking around/at herself

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120
Q

How have Females shown Interpersonal Behaviours for the Practical Report Study?

A

Talking

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121
Q

What Future Research could be Conducted based on the Findings for the Practical Report Study?

A

Use a Confederate to not move at a green light + observe the person behind thems reaction + record their gender

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122
Q

What are 2 Improvements for the Practical Report Study?

A
  • Make it more ethical

* Make it more generalisable

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123
Q

How do you make the Practical Report Study more Ethical?

A

Debrief the participants after

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124
Q

How do you make the Practical Report Study more Generlisable?

A

Repeat the experiment in a different area

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125
Q

What are 2 Weaknesses for the Practical Report Study?

A
  • Generalisability is low

* There are ethical concerns

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126
Q

How is the Generalisability Low for the Practical Report Study?

A
  • Only people in Reigate who were driving at 2:30

* So, not representative to target population

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127
Q

How is their Ethical Concerns for the Practical Report Study?

A

Consent wasn’t gained, no debriefing, no right to withdraw, etc

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128
Q

What are 2 Strengths of the Practical Report Study?

A
  • High in ecological validity

* Collected both quantitative + qualitative data

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129
Q

How is the Practical Report Study High in Ecological Validity?

A

Observed participants in their natural environment - driving in Reigate

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130
Q

How did the Practical Report Study Collect both Quantitative + Qualitative Data?

A 
•Looked at behaviours + actions they did 
Measured:
•Looking in the mirror 
•Looking at phone 
•Fixing radio/using it 
•Drinking/eating
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131
Q

What was the Conclusion in relation to Behaviour in General for the Practical Report Study?

A

The observation + differences in driving behaviours between genders has shown that there is no significant difference

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132
Q

What did the Results from Thematic Analysis Indicate?

A

•Men - interact more w/ others in their car + show more emotions •Women are more independent in the car + touch objects

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133
Q

What did the Chi-Square Results Show for the Practical Report Study?

A

There is no significant difference between genders driving behaviours

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134
Q

What does Previous Research Indicate about Gender Differences in Driving for the Practical Report?

A
  • Woman are less likely to found in a car crash
  • Woman less likely to speed
  • Men who past their test quickly - lose concentration
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135
Q

Who Developed the learning theory of Operant Conditioning?

A

Frederic Skinner

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136
Q

What was the Aim of Thorndike’s Research (1911) which Initiated the Operant Conditioning theory?

A

Investigate how behaviour was learnt in a scientific manner

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137
Q

What did Thorndike Decelop for his Research (1911) which Initiated the Operant Conditioning theory?

A

A puzzle box w/ a single exit that could only be opened by a system of levers

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138
Q

What was the Study of Thorndike’s Research (1911) which Initiated the Operant Conditioning theory?

A
  • Hungry cat placed in box w/ food placed outside
  • Cat tried to get out + accidentally pressed the lever
  • Gradually learnt by trail + error how to open the box
  • So, cat got food - that acted as a reward
139
Q

Why was a Reward given in Thorndike’s Research (1911) which Initiated the Operant Conditioning theory?

A
  • So behaviour is repeated

* Called - trail + error learning

140
Q

What was the Law or Effect that Thorndike’s Research (1911) Stated which Initiated the Operant Conditioning theory?

A

If the effect of learning to get out of the box is good so gets food then behaviour is learnt + repeated

141
Q

What did Skinner Develop for his Research (1938) which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?

A

An environment for the rats to live in + experience positive + negative reinforcement to see if this could change their behaviour

142
Q

What was the Environment Skinner Created for his Research (1938) which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?

A

Skinner box

143
Q

Why were Rats placed in a Box for Skinner’s Research (1938) which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?

A
  • So he was able to manipulate the rats behaviour through reinforcement
  • Used to deliver negative + positive reinforcements associated w/ eating
144
Q

What did the Rats in Skinner’s Research (1938) Learn overtime which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?

A
  • About how they were punished + rewarded

* If they carried out desired behaviour then rewarded w/ food

145
Q

What is an Example of when the Rats in Skinner’s Research (1938) were Rewarded for Desired Behaviour which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?

A
  • Each time they saw a red light - they pressed the lever
  • So rewarded w/ a food pellet
  • Overtime they learnt the association w/ touching a lever and receiving food
146
Q

How were the Rats in Skinner’s Research (1938) Punished for Certain Behaviour which Resulted in the Operant Conditioning theory?

A
  • Used an electric shock generator
  • Electric shock was used as an punishment
  • If he punished the rats then they are less likely to do this behaviour
147
Q

What does the B in the ABC model of Operant Conditioning Mean?

A
  • Behaviour

* The response made by the organism

148
Q

What does the A in the ABC model of Operant Conditioning Mean?

A
  • Antecedent

* The situation/stimulus that triggers a behaviour

149
Q

What does the C in the ABC model of Operant Conditioning Mean?

A
  • Consequence

* What happens because of the behaviour

150
Q

What are the 2 main types of Consequence of Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Reinforces

* Punishers

151
Q

What are Reinforcers as a Consequence in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Consequences from the environment that increase the probability of a behaviour being be repeated
  • Can be negative or positive
152
Q

What are Punishers as a Consequence in Operant Conditioning?

A

Consequences from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated

153
Q

What is Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Encourage a repetition of a desired behaviour

* A central component of operant conditioning

154
Q

What are Primary Reinforcers in Operant Conditioning?

A

Rewards that are focused on meeting a basic need

155
Q

What are Secondary Reinforcers in Operant Conditioning?

A

Rewards that can satisfy a basic need but it’s not in itself a basic need

156
Q

What are the 2 Main types of Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Positive reinforcement

* Negative reinforcement

157
Q

What is Positive Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Something good is given in response to the behaviour

158
Q

What is Negative Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Something bad is taken away in response to behaviour

159
Q

What are Punishments in Operant Conditioning?

A

Are used to discourage behaviour

160
Q

What is Positive Punishment in Operant Conditioning?

A

Something bad/undesired is given + unwanted behaviour is stopped

161
Q

What is Negative Punishment in Operant Conditioning?

A

Something good/desired is taken away and the unwanted behaviour is stopped

162
Q

What is a Difficulty with Punishment in Operant Conditioning?

A

It doesn’t promote or give info about the desired behaviour - it only stops undesirable behaviour

163
Q

What is the main Essence of Operant Conditioning?

A

Behaviour is learnt through positive + negative reinforcements

164
Q

How does the Theory of Operant Conditioning account For Individual Differences?

A
  • Reinforcement occur in an individual’s environment
  • Everyone’s environment is different
  • So, accounts for individual differences
165
Q

How does the Theory of Operant Conditioning account For Determinism?

A
  • Individuals aren’t in control of their environment + upbringing
  • So, the concept of free will is an ilusión + behaviour is a consequence of learning from the environment which an individual doesn’t have a control of
166
Q

How are the Issues of Social Control Associated with Operant Conditioning?

A

OC suggests behaviour can be shaped by environment forces - behaviour can be manipulated by others through social control

167
Q

What is an Example of how the Issues of Social Control are Associated with Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Skinner discusses how societies could exercise control over their citizens by using schedules of reinforcement
  • Mean that citizens become more productive at their work if they’re rewarded more through reinforcers or become less responsive if punished
168
Q

What are Token Economy Systems in Operant Conditioning?

A

A treatment method that provides secondary reinforcement for a desirable behaviour that can be saved up or exchanged for a primary reinforcer

169
Q

What is the main Aim of Token Economy Systems in Operant Conditioning?

A

Encourage desired behaviour through a system of reward + reduce undesired behaviour through punishment

170
Q

What is Selective Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Some desirable behaviour are encouraged whilst others are extinguished

171
Q

What are the Tokens in Economies in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for primary reinforcers
  • The tokens are given in response for showing desired behaviour
172
Q

How does the Token Economy System work in a School in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Merit
  • House points
  • Points
  • Extra break time
173
Q

How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as Reductionist?

A
  • It focuses only on positive + negative reinforces to an explanation of human behaviour
  • But, it ignores biological + cognitive influences and involved in behaviour
174
Q

How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as Unethical?

A

Skinner caused unnecessary suffering w/ his use of electric shocks on animals

175
Q

How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as Ethical?

A
  • Costs to the animals are outweighed by the many applications of Skinner’s research that have made human life easier
  • E.g. training or guide dogs
176
Q

How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as having Low Ecological Validity?

A
  • The organisms learn in far more complex environments than a Skinner box
  • So setting is not realistic
  • Limits the credibility as an explanation of human behaviour
177
Q

How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as having Low Generalisability?

A
  • Skinner’s research used rats + pigeons as participants
  • Animals have different everyday experiences from humans + they don’t have the cognitive abilities of humans
  • E.g. language - so learning experiences will be different
  • The theory doesn’t take in to account the fact that human learning is influenced by cognitive abilities + social behaviours
178
Q

What are the Practical Applications of the Theory of Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Provides an explanation for how different behaviours are learnt - e.g. addiction to drugs
  • So, tells us how behaviour can be changed through reinforcers
  • Also, it’s useful in the education + criminal justice system + treatments for dysfunctional behaviours
  • E.g. Paul + Lentz (1997) showed benefits of token economy systems for the treatment of patients w/ schizophrenia
179
Q

How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as having High Reliability?

A
  • Skinner box used standardised procedures
  • So, Skinner could replicate his research over + over again
  • Which conformed the consistency of his findings
180
Q

How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning Highly Falsifiable?

A

The concepts of the theory - reinforcement + punishment - are clearly defined allowing testable predictions to be made

181
Q

How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as having High Internal Validity?

A
  • Skinner’s research was carried out in a lab setting w/ high levels of controls
  • E.g. use of Skinner’s box allowed for manipulation of reward + punishments to be given in controlled environment to manipulate behaviour - allowed Skinner to estable cause + effect links
  • Accuracy of data is high
  • Provides theory w/ credibility
182
Q

How is the Theory of Operant Conditioning seen as having High Empiricism?

A
  • Skinner only studied directly observable behaviour
  • Data gathered in research was quantitative - provides objective statistical evidence to confirm how behaviour is learnt
183
Q

What did Paul + Lentz Investigate which Outlines Issues of Social Control in Operant Conditioning?

A

Investigated effectiveness of operant conditioning by reinforcing appropriate behaviours w/ 83 schizophrenic patients

184
Q

What was Paul + Lentz’s Procedure which Outlines Issues of Social Control in Operant Conditioning?

A

Schizophrenic patients were given tokens as rewards when they behaved appropriately + these exchanged for luxury items

185
Q

What did Paul + Lentz Find which Outlines Issues of Social Control in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Token economy reduced some schizophrenic symptoms such as bizarre motor tics
  • Was successful in improving interpersonal skills + self care
186
Q

How did Paul + Lentz’s study Raise important Issues of Social Control in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Some argue that it’s not morally correct for a person to control behaviours of others
  • Some argue that the experiment violated the patients basic human rights
  • But, patients had their rights + freedom of choice w/ regard to the treatment options constrained by the token economy
187
Q

What are Schedules of Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

There are different patterns of reinforcement which have different effects on the speed of learning + whether extension occurs

188
Q

What happens if there is No Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning and Why does this happen?

A
  • Then that behaviour may become extinct

* Because positive reinforcement has been removed + therefore the behaviour becomes extinct

189
Q

What is Response Rate in Operant Conditioning and give an Example?

A
  • The rate at which the rat pressed the lever

* E.g. how hard the rat worked

190
Q

What is Extinction Rate in Operant Conditioning and give an Example?

A
  • The rate at which the lever pressing dies out

* E.g. how hard the rats gave up

191
Q

What did Skinner propose Continuous Reinforcement is in Operant Conditioning?

A

When behaviour is rewarded or punished each time it occurred

192
Q

What is the Response Rate for Continuous Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Slow

193
Q

What is the Response Rate for Fixed Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Fast

194
Q

What is the Response Rate for Fixed Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Medium

195
Q

What is the Response Rate for Variable Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Fast

196
Q

What is the Response Rate for Variable Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Fast

197
Q

What is the Extinction Rate for Continuous Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Fast

198
Q

What is the Extinction Rate for Fixed Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Medium

199
Q

What is the Extinction Rate for Fixed Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Medium

200
Q

What is the Extinction Rate for Variable Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Slow

201
Q

What is the Extinction Rate for Variable Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Slow

202
Q

What is the Description of Fixed Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Behaviour is reinforced only after the behaviour occurs a set number of times

203
Q

What is the Description of Fixed Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least 1 correct response has been made

204
Q

What is the Description of Variable Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

The reinforcement or punishment is given randomly with regards to the number of responses achieved

205
Q

What is the Description of Variable Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

The reinforcement is given after variable amounts of time - can be given at 1 or 2 or 5 mins

206
Q

What are the 4 Schedules of Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Fixed ratio reinforcement
  • Fixed interval reinforcement
  • Variable ratio reinforcement
  • Variable interval reinforcement
207
Q

What are the Applications in Individual Differences for the Schedules of Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning and give an Example?

A
  • How people differ because of different environmental influences + experiences
  • E.g. in the form of rewards + punishments
208
Q

What is the Description of Extinction in Operant Conditioning?

A

When there is no reinforcement so that behaviour has to become extinct

209
Q

What is a Human Example of Fixed Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Teacher gives a gold star to pupils for every 2 pieces of writing they do
  • Up to 8 good pieces of writing during this day
210
Q

What is a Human Example of Fixed Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A

Teacher gives a gold star every 2 hours in class to each child who has done good work

211
Q

What is a Human Example of Variable Ratio Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Teacher gives out 2 gold stars to pupils every day - but they have to do 8 good pieces of work
  • But, they don’t know how many pieces they have to do to get 1 gold star
212
Q

What is a Human Example of Variable Interval Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Teacher gives out 2 gold stars to pupils every day provided they do 8 pieces of work
  • But, they don’t know at what time they going to receive their gold stars
213
Q

What is the Description of Shaping in Operant Conditioning?

A

Using operant conditioning in the form of rewards or punishment to form a complex behaviour that wouldn’t occur as a whole naturally so couldn’t be reinforced itself

214
Q

What is Behaviour Modification in Operant Conditioning?

A

When rewards or punishments are planned so that certain behaviours are produced and others are dropped

215
Q

What is the Main way of Modifying Behaviour in Operant Conditioning?

A

Shaping

216
Q

What is the Process of Shaping in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Rewarding moves towards the desired behaviour
  • Waiting for an action that is nearer to the desired behaviour before a reward is given
  • Waiting for the actual behaviour before offering the reinforcement
217
Q

What is the Example of the Squirrels Behaviour being Shaped in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Squirrel taught to complete an assault course

* Necessary to reward each part of the course until the squirrel had learnt the whole course

218
Q

What is the Example of the Pigeon’s Behaviour being Shaped in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Pigeon is rewarded for pecking near the ground
  • Reinforcement is withheld until the pecking is near the ball
  • Reward (food) isn’t given until the ball is hit + until the ball hits the pins
219
Q

If you Modify Behaviour, What do you Change Something by in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • Extinguish undesirable behaviours- by removing the reinforcer
  • Replace original behaviour w/ desirable behaviour + reinforce it
220
Q

Why did Skinner further Behaviour Modification with Successive Approximations in Operant Conditioning?

A

To reward all the small desirable behaviours that you wish to see reinforced

221
Q

How can Behaviour Modification and Shaping be Applied to Humans in Operant Conditioning?

A

Can be used when treating individuals w/ ADHD + OCD for their target behaviour to be achieved

222
Q

What are the Main Components that Operant Conditioning Covers?

A
  • Shaping
  • Token economies
  • Schedules of reinforcement
  • Positive + negative punishment
  • Positive + negative reinforcement
223
Q

What is a Social Phobia in Operant Conditioning?

A
  • A marked fear of social situations

* E.g. parties college shopping centres

224
Q

How could someone Aquire a Phobia through a pattern of Rewards in Operant Conditioning?

A

If a fear of something is rewarded - like getting attention for it then the response is likely to occur again

225
Q

How could someone Aquire a Phobia through a pattern of Punishments in Operant Conditioning?

A

Giving negative consequences to an action that leads to the phobia would mean learning through negative reinforcement which could cause pain or fear

226
Q

What is the Aim of the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?

A

To test out whether or not classical conditioning occurs in humans

227
Q

What did Watson + Rayner want to find in their study in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Whether you can condition fear of an animal by simultaneously presenting the animal
  • Whether the fear would be transferred to other animals + objects
  • The effects of time on the conditioned response
228
Q

What was the Background of Little Albert from the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • He lived a normal life
  • He was healthy
  • He was solid + unemotional
  • He weighed 21 pounds at 9 months
229
Q

When Albert was 9 months old what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • He was shown neutral stimuli - rat, rabbit, cotton wool
  • He produced a neutral response
  • He was exposed to a loud bang in form of a metal bar being hit w/ a hammer
  • Which produced a fear response - crying fit
230
Q

When Albert was 11 months old and 3 days what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • He was exposed to the rat again
  • He produces a neutral response
  • When he tried to touch the rat, the bar was struck
  • He produced a startled response - jumping violently forward but didn’t cry
231
Q

When Albert was 11 months old and 10 days what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Rat + loud band were paired together 5 times
  • Then, the rat was presented on its own
  • Albert immediately, turned + crawled away - signs of a fear response
232
Q

When Albert was 11 months old and 15 days what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • He was presented w/ objects similar to the rat
  • E.g. rabbit, dog, fur coat, cotton wool, santa mask
  • He showed signs of fear - whimpering, trembling, crying
  • But, when presented to stimulus not similar to rat - blocks - Albert showed no fear + played well
233
Q

When Albert was 11 months old and 20 days what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • There was a weakened association as the rat produced a less marked response
  • So, researcher renewed association - banging the bar w/ seeing the rat
  • Albert showed fear to the rat, dog, but not to the rabbit
  • In another environment - paired rabbit + dog w/ the loud band + Albert produced a fear response
234
Q

When Albert was 1 year old and 21 days what did Watson + Rayner find in their study in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Researcher wanted to know if fear had lasted longer than 1 month
  • Albert produced a fear response for the Santa mask, dog, rabbit, fur coat, rat
  • But, positive response w/ the blocks
235
Q

What was the Conclusion of the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Conditioned response of fear can occur in humans after a few pairings of stimulus - but pairings might need to be repeated
  • Conditioned response can be transferred to other similar objects
236
Q

What were the main Results in the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?

A

The fear of the white rat + other similar animals + objects can be explained using classical conditioning principles

237
Q

How does the study of Watson + Rayner that supports Classical Conditioning have Low Generalisability?

A
  • It was a case study - only 1 individual- Little Albert
  • Study only representative of 1 person, so results not generalisable
  • He was only 9 months old - so not clear if adults would respond to classical conditioning in the same way
238
Q

How does the study of Watson + Rayner that supports Classical Conditioning have High Reliability?

A
  • The methodology was simple + well documented step by step
  • So, easily replicated
  • E.g. Albert was exposed to loud noises + the rat in set of standardised procedures based on Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning
239
Q

What are the Applications for the study of Watson + Rayner that supports Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Provide explanation of how a fear response is learnt
  • If it’s learnt, it can also be unlearnt through treatment based on classical conditioning
  • Given important therapy for phobias e.g. systematic desensitisation
  • Underpins the 1 of the most effective way to treat anxiety = cognitive behavioural therapy
240
Q

How does the study of Watson + Rayner that supports Classical Conditioning have High Internal Validity?

A
  • Study was scientific + carried out in lab conditions w/ high levels of control
  • E.g. use of blocks as a baseline to show Albert played perfectly normally when given objects that had not been conditioned
  • Cause + effect links are made showing fear responses can be made
  • So, provides evidence to support psychology as a science
241
Q

How does the study of Watson + Rayner that supports Classical Conditioning have Low Ecological Validity?

A
  • Study done in very controlled conditions - the small quiet room
  • Most babies learn in far more complex environments
  • They controlled the stimuli he was exposed to throughout the study
  • But, at the end of the study Albert was actually moved into a bigger room with people in it
242
Q

How was the study of Watson + Rayner Unethical?

A
  • Albert was psychologically harmed
  • E.g. on many occasions he was described as ‘crying’ + ‘whimpering’ in response to stimuli like the rat + dog
  • No informed consent
  • E.g. it’s not made clear how much his mother/father knew of what happened
243
Q

What was the Unconditioned Stimulus at 11 months age + 10 days in the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?

A

The loud bang

244
Q

Throughout Conditioning Process what is the Conditioned Stimulus in the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?

A

The rat

245
Q

What was all the different Stimuli used in the Watson + Rayner study in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Rabbit
  • Dog
  • Fur coat
  • Santa mask
  • Cotton wool
  • Rat
  • Blocks
246
Q

What is Fear in Classical Conditioning?

A

One of the 6 universal emotions which every human has

247
Q

Where have the 6 Universal Emotions Developed through in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Evolutionary needs - nature

* Environmental factors - nurture

248
Q

What is the Purpose of the Fear Emotion in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • It serves a protective purpose

* Activates the ‘fight’ or ‘flight’ response

249
Q

In terms of Evolution, How was the Fight or Flight response Effective?

A

For keeping people alive when they encountered dangerous situations which required a response

250
Q

What can Fears Escalate and Develop into?

A

Phobias

251
Q

What are the Natural Fears you have at the age of 0-2 years according to Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Loud noises
  • Being alone
  • Strangers
  • Unfamiliar objects
252
Q

What are the Natural Fears you have at the age of 3-6 years according to Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Ghosts
  • Imaginary things
  • Monsters
  • Strange noises
253
Q

What are the Natural Fears you have at the age of 7-16 years according to Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Death
  • Exams
  • Illness
  • Injury
  • More realistic fears
254
Q

What is Classified a Phobia in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Fear of object,item,situation is persistent that affects the persons functioning every day
  • Exposure to the phobic stimulus provokes immediate anxiety response - form of crying, panic attack, freezing or running away
  • Object,item,situation is excessively avoided
  • These symptoms present for at least 6 months
255
Q

What is the Phobia of Social Phobia in Classical Conditioning?

A

Fear of interacting w/ other people

256
Q

What is the Phobia of Agoraphobia in Classical Conditioning?

A

Fear of open public places

257
Q

What is the Phobia of Emetophobia in Classical Conditioning?

A

Fear of vomiting

258
Q

What is the Phobia of Erythrophobia in Classical Conditioning?

A

Fear of blushing

259
Q

What is the Phobia of Vehophobia in Classical Conditioning?

A

Fear of driving

260
Q

What is the Phobia of Hypochondria in Classical Conditioning?

A

Fear of illness

261
Q

What is the Phobia of Aerophobia in Classical Conditioning?

A

Fear of flying

262
Q

What is the Phobia of Arachnophobia in Classical Conditioning?

A

Fear of spiders

263
Q

What is the Phobia of Zoophobia in Classical Conditioning?

A

Fear of animals

264
Q

What is the Phobia of Claustrophobia in Classical Conditioning?

A

Fear of small/tight spaces

265
Q

How does Classical Conditioning explain the Acquisition of a Phobia according to Watson + Rayner’s Research?

A

Through the process of classical conditioning + the pairing of an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus can bring about a conditioned emotional response - which can be a fear response that turns into a phobia over time

266
Q

How does the Classical Conditioning explain the Maintenance of a Phobia?

A

Pairing between the unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus would have to be renewed occasionally

267
Q

How does the Classical Conditioning in Watson + Rayner’s Study explain the Maintenance of a Phobia?

A
  • Little Albert conditioned to fear the rat
  • But, at 11 months 20 days of age they found the fear of the rat (neutral stimuli) was less marked
  • So, they paired the rat w/ the loud noise (unconditioned stimuli) + renewed the conditioned fear response to the rat (conditioned stimulus)
268
Q

How many people have Phobias in the UK?

A

10 million people

269
Q

What are the 2 Types of Therapy for Phobias in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Flooding therapy

* Systematic densitisation

270
Q

Who Developed Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A

Wolpe

271
Q

What is the Process of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Step by step process where an individual w/ phobia becomes more familiar w/ the feared object, item, situation
  • It’s carried out over a period of time
272
Q

How Long is the Process of Systematic Densitisation carried out for in Classical Conditioning?

A

Over a period of time - Number of weeks

273
Q

What is the Goal of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A

An individual being able to be face their feared stimulus in a calm manner

274
Q

WIth Systematic Densitisation, What are the other skills which are Taught to Help an individual Face their Fear in Classical Conditioning?

A

Taught how to relax their muscles - progressive muscle relaxation

275
Q

In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, what is the Definition of Systematic?

A

Gradually facing up to phobic object

276
Q

In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, what is the Definition of Densitisation?

A

Brought about by relaxation techniques

277
Q

In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, what is the Definition of In Vivo?

A

Being exposed to a real object

278
Q

In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, what is the Definition of In Vitro?

A

Being exposed to an imaginary object

279
Q

In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, what is the Definition of Progressive Muscle Relaxation?

A

Relaxation technique used to calm muscles

280
Q

In Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, How can Individuals be Gradually re-introduced to their feared Stimulus?

A

In vivo or in vitro

281
Q

Over the Weeks of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, What should happen?

A

The individuals anxiety should reduce and would be less fearful of the stimulus since the learned stimulus + response links will now be broken as the new association has been learnt

282
Q

Using Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning, What is the Process of Treating people with Anxiety of Spiders?

A
  • Week 1 - discuss about spiders
  • Week 2 - look at pictures + videos of spiders
  • Week 3 - be in same room of the spider
  • Week 4 - go close to the spider
  • Week 5 - hold the spider
283
Q

What are the Strengths of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Ethical
  • Generalisable
  • Useful
  • Based upon scientific research methodology
284
Q

What are the Weaknesses of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Reductionist

* Reduce the applications of the findings

285
Q

What is an Example of how Generalisability is a Strength of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Fear of spiders, dogs, flying - demonstrated through research by Capafons (1998)
  • Capafons found that it’s effective for treating fear of flying
286
Q

What is an Example of how A lot of Scientific Research is a Strength of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • McGrath (1990) found that 75% of individuals w/ phobias respond to this therapy
  • Systematic Densitisation is the preferred treatment w/ the NHS
287
Q

How is Ethics a Strengths of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Exposure to the feared stimulus is gradual + agreed w/ the individual prior to exposure
  • Individual is involved in how the treatment is carried out - enables them to feel empowered + involved
288
Q

What is the Alternative Therapy to Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A

Virtual Reality Therapy by Freeman

289
Q

How is Individual Differences a Weakness of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • The therapy doesn’t suit everyone - not everyone can learn how to relax easily
  • Can’t be applied to people who have more generalised anxiety disorders as situations/objects must be clearly identifiable for it to work
290
Q

How is Reductionism a Weakness of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • It assumes all phobias are caused by classical conditioning
  • So, more complex cognitive process lie behind some phobias
  • Original research used animals
291
Q

How is Limited Applications a Weakness of Systematic Densitisation in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Less effective at treating phobias that have an underlying survival component
  • E.g. fear of dark, heights
  • As, they may be deep rooted fears that enables survival in our evolutionary past
  • So, ineffective in treating evolutionary phobias
292
Q

What did Freeman Study that supports Virtual Reality Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Conducted a trail that hopes to treat millions w/ mental heath problems w/ a machine at home
  • Patients see a virtual coach who teaches them about fear of heights
  • They guide patients through real life situations using the principles of cognitive behavioural therapy
293
Q

What was Evidence from Freeman that his machine Worked that supports Virtual Reality Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A

Patients who suffered a fear of height for 30 years were able to climb steep mountains + cross rope bridges in the real world after treatment

294
Q

What is Aversion Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Targets dysfunctional behaviours - e.g. addictions
  • To treat - you need to recondition the stimulus of the addiction w/ an aversion stimulus
  • Aversion stimuli creates an undesired emotion of dislike when presented w/ condition stimulus to ensure the behaviour will not be repeated
295
Q

How has Aversion Therapy in Classical Conditioning been Used in the Past?

A
  • To try + convert homosexuals to heterosexuality
  • Administered electric shocks when men look at pictures of naked men
  • No electric shocks administered when men look at naked pictures of women
  • But, that’s illegal now
296
Q

How has Aversion Therapy in Classical Conditioning Dangerous?

A
  • Gay man - Billy Clegg-Hill died from a coma

* Caused by injections of a drug that were given to make him sick during aversion therapy so he would turn straight

297
Q

What is Flooding as a Treatment of a Phobia in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Exposure therapy

* It involves exposing an individual to their feared stimulus all at once

298
Q

Who Created Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A

Thomas Stampfl

299
Q

What is Flooding in Classical Conditioning?

A

Direct, prolonged exposure to a fearful situation or experience

300
Q

What is Implosion in Classical Conditioning?

A

Prolonged exposure to the phobic situation/experience by imagining the feared stimuli

301
Q

In Classical Conditioning, what does Flooding Therapy use the Idea that?

A

Phobia response is caused by an alarm reaction + these emotions have certain longevity before they subside

302
Q

What is the Alarm reaction in Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Biological reaction

* Giving the organism engery to fight or flee from the situation

303
Q

How does the Alarm reaction in Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning Work in your body?

A
  • Blood sugar available + digestion tend to cease as the body goes into a high alert stage
  • As body uses up all blood sugar it will start to calm
304
Q

What happens when your Body starts to Calm from the Alarm reaction in Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • The parasympathetic nervous system begins to work

* So, it will calm the sympathetic nervous system

305
Q

What is the Process of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Phobic individual placed in a feared situation for a prolonged period
  • They’re prevented from the normally rewarding pattern of escape
  • With enough exposure to the feared stimulus - extinction of the fear response should occur as feared stimulus doesn’t cause any harm
306
Q

What are the Strengths of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Reliable
  • Useful
  • Based upon scientific research methodology
307
Q

What are the Weakness of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Ethical

* Reduce the application of the findings

308
Q

How is Social Control Weakness of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A

Therapist in control of the client - they aren’t allowed to leave the fearful situation

309
Q

How are Applications a Weakness of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • It is useful for phobias, but not for treatment for other mental health difficulties
  • Some clients report improvement, but others acquire more anxiety as it’s scary
310
Q

How are Ethics a Weakness of Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • It’s trauma for the patient as the phobia is purposely put into a situation of great distress
  • E.g. Wolpe’s study (1973) - although the girl eventually calm down she was hysterical for a large part of the journey but he kept driving her around
311
Q

How is Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning an Effective a Method to Reduce individuals Fear?

A
  • It’s fast + works quickly

* E.g. Wolpe’s study (1973) - girl was afraid of cats + he drove her around for a few hours before she became calm

312
Q

What are the Differences between Systematic Densitisation + Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • SD is a gradual approach to the feared stimulus, whereas FT exposed the person to phobia all at once
  • SD uses muscle relaxation techniques, whereas FT doesn’t
313
Q

What are the Similarities between Systematic Densitisation + Flooding Therapy in Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Both useful
  • Based on classical conditioning
  • Their limitations of effectiveness are the same
314
Q

What is the Classical Conditioning Contemporary Study?

A

Capafons (1998)

315
Q

What is the Aim of Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A

To validate the effectiveness of systematic densitisation as a treatment for a fear of flying + to assess the therapeutic success of systematic densitisation when applied to the specific phobia

316
Q

What was the Sample in Total for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A

41 participants via a media campaign

317
Q

What was the Sample of the Treatment Group for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • 20 participants in total
  • 8 males
  • 12 females
  • Mean age of 29 years old
318
Q

What was the Sample of the Waiting List Group (Control) for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • 21 participants in total
  • 9 males
  • 11 females
  • Mean age of 34 years old
319
Q

What was the Conclusion for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • The intervention program as outlined guarantees for its uses in treatment for decreasing or eradicating the fear of flying
  • So, process of systematic densitisation is an effective way of treating those of phobia of flying
320
Q

What were the 2 Relaxation Techniques used in Treatment Sessions for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Breathing techniques

* Progressive relaxation techniques

321
Q

What Treatment did the participants Receive for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A

Systematic densitisation

322
Q

What were the Findings of the Intragroup analysis for the Waiting List Group for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • In self report scales, interview responses + physiological reactions in stimulation
  • Shows that the more passing of time doesn’t lead to quantitative changes
323
Q

What were the Findings of the Intragroup analysis for the Treatment Group for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Self report carried out before + after indicate significant changes + reduction in fear responses
  • So, indicating the treatment is effective for those w/ fear of flying
324
Q

What were the Results for the Intragroup analysis for the Waiting List Group and Treatment Groups Before Therapy for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A

They were similar on self-reported tear levels + the psychophysical measures before treatment

325
Q

What were the Results for the Intragroup analysis for the Waiting List Group and Treatment Groups After Therapy for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Scores significantly different for each group for practically all variables analysed
  • Only 2 maintaining non-significant differences - fear without involvement + palm temperature
326
Q

How Many Treatments did the Participants in the Treatment Condition Receive for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Max of 15 sessions

* Min of 12 sessions

327
Q

How were Participants Interviewed for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A

Interviewed alone

328
Q

What was the Content of the Video used in the Research for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Videotape of a plane trip

* Made from a subjective perspective about a trip by a plane

329
Q

What were the 2 Controls Used for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Temperature of room maintained at 22.5•C

* Arm chair was positioned 1.8metres from a TV

330
Q

What Materials were used for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • General diagnostic info on fear of flying
  • Fear of flying scales
  • Videotape of a plane trip
  • Psychophysical recording instruments - measure muscular tension + temp of palm
331
Q

What was Step 1 for the Method for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Participants interviewed individually by research team
  • The interview subjects completed the diagnostic test + in other sessions the rest of measures were taken using the self-report method
332
Q

What was Step 2 for the Method for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Participants watched video of the plane visit whilst undergoing psychophysical measurement •Ps responses were measured for a 3 minute period in the absence of phobic stimulus
  • Patient proceeded to watch the video and was told to feel as involved as possible
333
Q

What was Step 3 for the Method for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • For treatment group - another appointment was made for the presenting treatment
  • For control group - the next assessment session
  • Interval between the 1st + 2nd was 8 weeks for all the measures
334
Q

What was Step 4 for the Method for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A

•Ps which were receiving the treatment two 1 hour sessions per week as part of a standardised individual desensitisation programme
•In addition to training in techniques of breathing, progressive relaxation,
imagination
•The treatment combines imagination + in vivo elements

335
Q

What was Step 5 for the Method for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A

After 8 weeks - both groups came back to retake the questionnaires + stimulated video test to see if their fear had declined

336
Q

What were the Strengths for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • High internal validity
  • Useful for practical applications
  • Ethical
  • High in reliability
  • Based upon scientific research methodology
337
Q

What were the Weaknesses for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Generalisability

* Ecological Validity - reduces the applications of the findings

338
Q

How is Ethics a Strength for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • All Ps gave consent + were supported throughout the study

* However, researchers made the control group wait some time for treatment

339
Q

How is Ecological Validity a Weakness for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • It used controlled conditions

* E.g. Ps used an artificial phobic stimulus so findings might not be accurate

340
Q

How is Internal Validity a Strength for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • It uses scientific methods
  • Experiment used strict controls in lab conditions
  • Allows for control of extraneous variables
  • E.g. Use of control group of ppl w/ fear of flying gives a baseline against differences in treatment groups fear can be compared
  • So, can see differences that therapy made
  • Objective, quantitative measures (heart rate) allowed precise physiological measurement of fear
  • But, use of self reports can lower validity
341
Q

What were the Applications for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Shows that systematic densitisation is effective therapy
  • So, can apply to help individuals w/ this phobia
  • But, individual differences are important + this therapy doesn’t work on everyone - 10% of the treatment group showed little improvement in their fear
342
Q

How is Reliability a Strength for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Standardised procedures used
  • E.g. temp of room was 22.5*C, armchair positioned 1.8metres from TV, same psychometrics used on each P
  • So, study easily replicated + tested consistency of the findings
343
Q

How is Generalisability a Weakness for Capafons Contemporary Study for Classical Conditioning?

A
  • Small sample - only 41 Ps + only 20 user in treatment condition
  • Sample was self selected - biased
  • E.g. Ps who volunteered may have wanted to cure their phobia - different to others - so, they may have responded well to the SD
  • Sample not representative for everyone
  • It’s questionable why her this study can tell us anything about the effectiveness of SD in treating phobias other than fear of flying

Psychology (14 decks)

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