Biological Flashcards
1
Q
What is Correlational Research?
A
The extent to which 2 variables are associated that shows a trend or systematic pattern
2
Q
What does Correlational Research Show in Biological Psychology?
A
Links between biological variables - e.g. hormone levels + human behaviours (aggression)
3
Q
What are Co-variables in Correlational Research?
A
2 variables in a Correlational study that have been measured
4
Q
What is a Major Issue in Correlational Research?
A
When we use correlation, we cannot Inter cause + effect
5
Q
What is a Positive Correlation in Correlational Research?
A
- Where high values on 1 variable are associated w/ high values on the other variable
- Where low values on 1 variable are associated w/ low values on the other variable
6
Q
What is a Negative Correlation in Correlational Research?
A
Where high values on 1 variable are associated w/ low values on the other variable
7
Q
What is an Example of Positive Correlation in Correlational Research?
A
Long periods of time spent reading associated w/ high levels of tiredness
8
Q
What is an Example of Negative Correlation in Correlational Research?
A
High levels of self esteem associated w/ low levels of depression
9
Q
What are Scatter Diagrams in Correlational Research?
A
Visual representation of (a graph of) a correlational relationship between 2 variables
10
Q
What is the Strength of the Correlation in Correlational Research Shown by?
A
By the straightness of the line of dots
11
Q
What is the Direction of the Correlation in Correlational Research Shown by?
A
By the slope of the line of dots
12
Q
What does a Correlation Coefficient in Correlational Research Shown by Tell you about a set of Data?
A
Tells you the strength of correlation + direction (+ve or -ve)
13
Q
What is a Correlation Coefficient in Correlational Research Shown by?
A
Any number between -1 and +1
14
Q
What are the Numbers of a Weak Correlation Coefficient in Correlational Research?
A
0.0 - 0.3
15
Q
What are the Numbers of a Moderate Correlation Coefficient in Correlational Research?
A
0.3-0.7
16
Q
What are the Numbers of a Strong Correlation Coefficient in Correlational Research?
A
Above 0.7
17
Q
How does Correlational Research support Psychology as a Science?
A
- Key feature of science is that it uses well controlled, objective, data collection methods to test hypotheses
- Correlational studies can’t control all the relevant variables but data is always quantitative + some control is possible
18
Q
What are the Strength of Correlations in Correlational Research?
A
- They allow identification of relationships between variables
- If relationship between 2 variables is indicated - then this is a starting point for stimulating future research
- It requires quantitative data which makes the easy to analyse + isn’t open to interpretation
19
Q
What are the Weaknesses of Correlations in Correlational Research?
A
- Some people misuse correlational research - making huge claims that sound convincing but are wrong
- It’s difficult to make accurate conclusions about the causes of the relationship
- Little control over variables so doesn’t allow cause + effect links to be established
- Limits how scientific correlational research is
20
Q
What does P_< 0.05 mean in Correlational Research?
A
The probability of the results occurring due to chance is less than or equal to 5% (0.05)
21
Q
What is the Aim of the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
A
Investigate, using a correlational method, whether testosterone levels can be linked to aggression levels
22
Q
What is the Concept behind the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
A
Explored ways to see if there was a relationship between testosterone levels + aggression levels shown by Reigate College students
23
Q
What is an Example of Previous Research behind the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
A
- Mazur (1983) has shown that teenage males testosterone increases
- Also, there’s a strong positive correlation w/ aggression + inter-male fighting
24
Q
What are the 2 Variables in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
A
- Testosterone levels
* Aggression levels
25
How do you Operationalise the Variable of Testosterone Levels in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* 2D (index finger)4D (ring finger) ratio
| * Averaged across both hands measured in mm
26
What indicates a Lower Ratio in Testosterone Levels in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
Higher testosterone
27
How do you Operationalise the Variable of Aggression Levels in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Each participant will have an aggression rating
| * Buss Perry Aggression questionnaire
28
What is an Strength of the Measurement of the Variable of Testosterone Levels in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Quantitative data produced giving each participant an average score across both hands for the testosterone levels
* Provides an objective numerical measurement of testosterone
29
What is an Strength of the Measurement of the Variable of Aggression Levels in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Easy to replicate using a standardised procedure
| * Leads to higher reliability which increases the scientific credibility of the measure of aggression
30
What is a Weakness of the Measurement of the Variable of Testosterone Levels in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
•The 2D/4D Ratio is a measure of testosterone levels a person was exposed to in the womb rather than a measure of current testosterone levels •It lowers internal validity as we are trying to link testosterone to current aggression levels
31
What is a Weakness of the Measurement of the Variable of Aggression Levels in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Aggression score is from a self-report questionnaire
| * Aggression score may represent socially desirable answer of people who may not wish to appear aggressive
32
What is the Alternate Hypothesis (Ha) in the Practical Report in Correlational Research and Operationalise it?
There will be a significant positive correlation between testosterone levels operationalised by 2D:4D ratio + aggression levels operationalised by Buss Perry aggression questionnaire
33
What is the Null Hypothesis (Ho) in the Practical Report in Correlational Research and Operationalise it?
Any correlation between testosterone levels operationalised by 2D:4D ratio + aggression levels operationalised by Buss Perry aggression questionnaire will be due to chance
34
What was the Sampling Technique used and Why in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Opportunity sample
| * As, easy + quick + convenient to do
35
What was the Sample used in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* 12 boys + 7 girls
* Psychology students
* All aged 16-17 years
* All from Reigate College
36
What is a Weakness of the Sample used in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Low in generalisability
* Made up of students between ages of 16-17
* Only generalisable to young people so results not as accurate
37
What is a Strength of the Sample used in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Opportunity sample
* We are working on a tight deadline w/ only 4 lessons to complete our correlational practice
* So, allowed us to collect data in an efficient manner
38
What are the Ethical Risks in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Mostly ethical
* But, confidentially is a problem as Ps might not want people to know their aggression levels
* And, protection of Ps is a problem as they might feel they have to do the study even though they don’t want to
39
What Materials were used for Measuring Testosterone Levels in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Rular (mm) to measure
* Paper to récord data
* Your hand
* Calculator to calculate the ratio
40
What Materials were used for Measuring Aggression Levels in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Phone to do questionnaire on
* Internet
* Paper to record the data
41
What was the Procedure for Measuring Testosterone Levels in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Using rular to measure index finger from crease nearest to palm, in mm
* Repeat step 1 for ring finger
* Using calculator, divide length of index finger by length of ring finger
* Repeat steps for left hand + record data
42
What was the Procedure for Measuring Aggression Levels in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Go on phone to do Buss Perry questionnaire
* Answers set of questions w/ a set rating scale
* Receive your physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, hostility + total aggression
* Record your data
43
What did the Scatter Diagram tell you about your Data in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
There’s no relationship between testosterone levels + aggression levels as it was a weak negative
44
What did the Scatter Diagram tell you with reference to your Hypothesis in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
We will reject our alternate hypothesis + accept the null hypothesis
45
What are you Testing For in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* For a correlation between 2 variables
| * Testosterone levels + aggression levels
46
What Level of a Measurement is the Data in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Ordinal data
* Measured testosterone using 2D/4D ratio in mm
* Measured aggression using Buss Perry questionnaire using 5 point rating scale
47
Was the Data Related or Unrelated in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Related data
| * As it was in pairs - measures of aggression + testosterone for each participant
48
What Test was Used for Inferential Statistics in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
Spearman’s Correlation (rho)
49
What was the Statement of Significance in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* The calculated value of 0.242 was less than the critical value of 0.327
* When N=17 at p<0.05 level of significance for a one tailed test
* So results weren’t significant so null hypothesis was accepted
* Which stated that no correlation between testosterone + aggression levels, measured by 2D:4D ration + questionnaire
50
Which Level of Significance was used in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
0.05 or 5%
51
Was the test of significance One-Tailed or Two-tailed in the Practical Report in Correlational Research and Why?
* One tailed
| * As, there was a positive correlation between 2 variables
52
How many Participants were used in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
17
53
What was the Calculated Value used in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
0.242
54
What was the Critical Value used in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
0.327
55
What Future Research could be Conducted based on the Findings in the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Research into how environment affects aggression levels •Research social factors that affect aggression - road rage
* Compare aggression and testosterone levels between criminals + non-criminals
56
What are 2 Improvements for the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Use more representative sample - wider age range
* With 2D:4D ratio measurements you can standardise further - same person measured everyone finger from same area so more accurate
57
What are 2 Strengths of the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Ethically good study
* E.g. Ps gave consent + knew aim of study so no deception + had right to withdraw, etc
* High in reliability due to standardised procedures
* E.g. Buss Perry questionnaire done in silence so no demand characteristics + at same time - 2D:4D ratio done at same time
58
What are 2 Weaknesses of the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* Not accurate - validity is low
* E.g. Ps might calculate something wrong - measure 2D:4D ratio differently to others
* Doesn’t provide cause + effect links - reductionist approach
* E.g. doesn’t explain why or mention other variables which might be associated w/ testosterone + aggression
59
What is the Conclusion of the Practical Report in Correlational Research in relation to Behaviour in General?
•Shows testosterone + aggression levels are not linked •This doesn’t support previous research which links testosterone and aggression levels from Mazur (1983)
60
What is the Conclusion of the Practical Report in Correlational Research in relation to your Results?
No correlation between testosterone + aggression levels as the results were not significant and the null hypothesis was accepted
61
What were the Results for Spearman’s Correlation Coefficient of the Practical Report in Correlational Research?
* The coefficient was 0.249
| * So, it’s a weak positive
62
What is Aronson’s (1997) Definition of Aggression?
* An intentional action aimed at doing harm or causing pain
* Action might be physical or verbal
* It night succeed in its goal or not
63
Do you think Aggression is Innate or Learned and State Evidence?
* Aggression is both
| * Nature explains aggressive behaviour by focusing on hormones, evolution + genetic’s, brain structure + functioning
64
What is Catharsis in Aggression?
Process of releasing negative energy from the mind
65
How does the Psychodynamic approach Explain Why some people might become Violently Aggressive in Aggression?
* Aggression is explained by using the unconscious drives in the mind
* Humans have a death drive (Thanatos) - drive to return us to our inorganic state
* When a person is frustrated (superego) the aggression is built up and released in form of violence or aggression
66
How are Eros + Thanatos Different in Aggression?
* Eros - positive, creative, love, motivates us, sexual behaviour
* Thanatos - death drive, aggression
67
How are Eros + Thanatos Similar in Aggression?
They are both innate
68
What are the 3 Parts of the Personality according to Freud?
* ID
* Ego
* Superego
69
What is the Superego as part of your Personality in Agression?
Operates morality principle, providing is w/ a conscious
70
What is the Ego as part of your Personality in Agression?
* Operates on reality principle + controls desire of ID
| * Maintains balance between id + superego
71
What is the ID as part of your Personality in Agression?
* Born w/ mass of pleasure seeking desires
| * Operates on pleasure principle + wants immediate gratification
72
What are the Key Assumptions of the Psychodynamic Approach in Aggression?
* Our awareness is in layers
* What we think/feel + what motivates us is in the unconscious mind
* Mental processes drive behaviour
73
What are the Weaknesses of the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Scientific credibility is low
* Low in validity
* Low in generalisability
* Freuds theory of aggression isn’t falsifiable
* It lacks empiricism
* Freuds theory of aggression is deterministic
74
What are the Strengths of the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Evidence to support
| * Useful applications
75
How is Freud’s theory of Aggression being Deterministic a Weaknesses of the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Sees aggression as being caused by innate drives in the unconscious mind in which the person has no direct control
* This is problematic - it means that aggressive behaviour doesn’t come from a persons free will
* This implies violent criminals cannot be held responsible for their behaviour
76
How is Freud’s theory of Aggression Not being Falsifiable a Weaknesses of the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Many of his ideas and not directly measurable or observable
* Difficult to design scientific research to test them
* E.g. Thanatos is the death drive - not directly observable as it’s the unconscious mind - not testable
* So, Freuds theory lacks empiricism
77
How is Low Generalisability a Weaknesses of the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Case studies only have 1 participant
* E.g. Little Hans
* Can’t berepresentative of population as a whole
* As, it’s a unique case
78
How is Low Validity a Weaknesses of the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Findings on the causes of aggression from case studies are based on qualitative data
* So, open to subjective interpretation
* They won’t accurately reflect what really causes aggression
79
How is Low Scientific Credibility a Weaknesses of the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Most of Freud’s evidence to support his theories was collected from detailed case studies of his patience
* E.g. Little Hans
* Not generalisable or valid as unique cases
80
How is Practical Applications a Strength of the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Freud’s theories led to practical applications in the form of talking cures like psychotherapy
* The idea of catharsis suggests that aggression might be reduced by people getting aggressive thoughts out of their system
81
How is Supporting Evidence a Strength of the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Freud uses detailed case studies to develop his theories + back his ideas
* Got qualitative data from clinical interviews + observations over a period of years
* So, could carry out in-depth analysis of each individual
82
How does the Study of Little Hans Support Evidence of the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Freud used interview data to draw conclusions
* Said that the aggression Hans showed towards his father
* E.g.biting him + hitting him
* Was evidence of oedipus complex in the phallic stage of psychosexual development
* As, the boy had unconscious jealousy of his fathers intimate relationship with his mother
83
What are 2 Similarities between Psychodynamic + Biological Explanations of Aggression?
* Both have a deterministic view of aggression - meaning aggressive behaviour is beyond the control of the individual
* Both can be considered as an innate explanation of an aggression - both supporting the nature side of the nature/ nurture debate
84
What are 2 Differences between Psychodynamic + Biological Explanations of Aggression?
* Biological has scientific evidence to support it whereas, Psychodynamic doesn’t have very much scientific support
* Their assumption about what they consider the main drive of aggressive behaviour to be
85
What are Examples of how a Difference between Psychodynamic + Biological Explanations of Aggression is that their Assumptions about what they Consider their Main Drive of Aggressive Behaviour to be?
* Psychodynamic - Aggression is result of unconscious mental mechanisms + drives conflicts between the death drive + life energy + sex drive
* Biological - Aggression is explained by physical properties of the brain - e.g. causes an increase in reactive aggression
86
What are Examples of how a Difference between Psychodynamic + Biological Explanations of Aggression is that the Biological Explanation has more Scientific Evidence?
* Psychodynamic- based on existence of theoretical structures - not directly observable - e.g. Thanatos (death instinct) is in your unconscious mind
* Biological - Directly tested using valid measuring instruments - e.g. Raine used PET scans to look for brain dysfunction in murderers
87
What are Examples of how a Similarity between Psychodynamic + Biological Explanations of Aggression is that they’re considered an Innate explanation of Aggression + support Nature side of the Nature/Nurture Debate?
* Psychodynamic - Born w/ an innate unconscious death drive, Thanatos that’s driven to self destruct
* Biological - Hormone levels + brain structures can make us act aggressively - e.g. high testosterone levels linked w/ aggressiveness
88
What are Examples of how a Similarity between Psychodynamic + Biological Explanations of Aggression is that they’re considered as a Deterministic view of Aggression so that Aggressive Behaviour is beyond our Control?
* Psychodynamic - because of death drive - aggression builds up in us + must be released through catharsis
* Biological - humans have evolved to be aggressive - early humans adapted to survive - aggression is built up
89
What is the Age of the Oral Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
0-15 months
90
What is the Age of the Anal Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
1-3 years
91
What is the Age of the Phallic Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
3-5 years
92
What is the Age of the Latency Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
5 years - puberty
93
What is the Age of the Genital Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Puberty onwards
94
What is the Aspect of Personality of the Oral Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Id is present from birth
95
What is the Aspect of Personality of the Anal Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Ego develops
96
What is the Aspect of Personality of the Phallic Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Develop of superego
97
What is the Aspect of Personality of the Latency Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Learning - social environment - same sex relationships
98
What is the Focus of the Libido of the Oral Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
The mouth
99
What is the Focus of the Libido of the Anal Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Anus - gain pleasure from control
100
What is the Focus of the Libido of the Phallic Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Genitals
101
What is the Focus of the Libido of the Latency Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Sexual feeling suppressed
102
What is the Focus of the Libido of the Genital Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Genitals
103
What is the Task to be Achieved of the Oral Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Child must achieve weaning
104
What is the Task to be Achieved of the Anal Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory mood of Aggression?
Toilet training
105
What is the Task to be Achieved of the Phallic Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Oedipus complex - child must successfully identify w/ same sex parent
106
What is the Task to be Achieved of the Latency Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Focus their energy on other aspects of life
107
What is the Task to be Achieved of the Genital Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Focus on genitals, sexual interest, desire, persist of sexual relationships
108
What do Fixations Result in for the Oral Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Psychological fixation - problems w/ weaning can lead to smoking, chewing, overeating, sarcasm
109
What do Fixations Result in for the Anal Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
* Overindulgence may result in a messy people
| * Under-indulgence may result in obsessive + over-tidy people
110
What do Fixations Result in for the Phallic Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Result in repression of sexuality
111
What do Fixations Result in for the Latency Stage in Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Time of learning, adjusting to social environment outside the home, absorbing culture, develop same-sex friends
112
What are the 5 Stages of Psycho-Sexual Development in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
* Oral stage
* Anal stage
* Phallic stage
* Latency stage
* Genital stage
113
According to Freud, What does the Stages of Psycho-Sexual Development Mean in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
•As you get older you focus on different parts of your body •Unique experiences create unique personalities
114
What was the Aim of Megargee + Mendelsohn (1970s) that is Evidence for Catharsis in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
To see if there’s a link between aggression + personality type
115
What was the Study of Megargee + Mendelsohn (1970s) that is Evidence for Catharsis in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
* Interviewed + given personality type people who had committed brutally aggressive crimes
* These criminals have been over controlled + repressed their anger until they exploded
116
What did Megargee + Mendelsohn (1970s) Conclude that is Evidence for Catharsis in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
* If people don’t let their aggression instinct out in small amounts from time to time
* The build up will be huge that they won’t be able to control it
117
What did Verona + Sullivan (2008) Find that is Evidence for Catharsis in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
People who reacted in aggressive way to being frustrated in the task had a reduced heart rate compared with those who did not react aggressively
118
What did Bushman (2002) Find that is Evidence Against Catharsis in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
* Ps who engaged in catharsis + vented their anger after they’d been deliberately angered by another person were more aggressive than those who did nothing
* Reduction of tension after an aggressive outburst increases the likelihood of later aggressive outburst which goes against the idea of catharsis
119
What is Sublimation to help Catharsis in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
* Find safe activity that requires certain amount of aggression
* If put energy into a safe activity
* E.g. sport
* Then it would reduce the buildup of our aggressive behaviour instinct
120
What happens if there have been Development issues of the Ego or Superego in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
Result in problem aggressive behaviour
121
At What Age does the Superego Develop at in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
3-6 years old
122
What does the Superego Operate as in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
* A morality principle
| * Develops an understanding or right + wrong way
123
What is Repression in Freud’s Theory of Aggression
Unacceptable aggressive urges are prevented from entering conscious awareness
124
What is Displacement in Freud’s Theory of Aggression
Being aggressive towards acceptable targets
125
At What Age does the Ego Develop at in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
2 years old
126
At What Age does the ID Develop at in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
0-2 years old
127
What is Eros in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
* Positive
* Creative
* Motivates us to live, love
* Sex drive
* In direct conflict w/ Thanatos
128
What is Thanatos in Freud’s Theory of Aggression?
* The death drive
* Self destructive
* Tension builds up inside + we can no longer control it = aggressive behaviour
* Causes aggressive behaviour
129
What are the 2 Innate’s Forming the 1st part of our Personality?
* Eros
| * Thanatos
130
How do Defence Mechanisms Help the Ego in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
Help keep the id + superego balanced
131
What are the Defence Mechanisms in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Displacement
* Denial
* Repression
* Projection
* Regression
132
What is Denial in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
Completely reject painful thoughts or feelings
133
What is Projection in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
Attribute your own unacceptable faults or wishes to someone else
134
What is Regression in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
Engage in behaviour characteristic of an earlier stage of development
135
What is the Superego in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* We take on the ethics of other people
| * Operates on the mortality principle - providing us w/ a conscious
136
What is the Ego in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Operates on reality principle + controls the desire of the id
* Maintains balance between the id + superego
137
What is the Id in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Biological component in theory
* Born w/ mass of pleasure seeking desires
* Id operates on pleasure principle + wants immediate gratification
138
What Metaphor is Used to a help us understand how the Mind is Structured in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
Iceberg
139
What are the 3 Levels of Consciousness in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Conscious
* Preconscious
* Unconscious
140
What is your Conscious Mind as part of your Levels of Consciousness in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Smallest part of your mind
* Only part you are aware of
* You can talk + think about you conscious experience in logical fashion
141
What is your Preconscious Mind as part of your Levels of Consciousness in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Things can be brought into consciousness
* It correspondes to ordinary memory
* It acts as a gatekeeper between conscious + unconscious
142
What is your Unconscious Mind as part of your Levels of Consciousness in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Biggest área of mind
* Not directly accessible to us
* Storage area for urges, feelings, ideas tied to anxiety + conflict + pain
* They influence our actions + our conscious awareness
* This is where most of the work of our personality - made up of Id, Ego, and Supergp takes place
143
What were Freud’s Key Ideas of How the Human Mind Works in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Defence mechanisms
* Structure of the mind
* Structure of the personality - Id, Ego, Superego
144
What Techniques were Developed to Help Patients reveal their Unconscious Mind + to Deal with Problems in Freud’s Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression?
* Free association
| * Dream analysis
145
What was Freud’s way of Explaining Behaviour un Aggression?
Psychodynamic approach
146
What was the Conclusion of the Adoption Study by Ludeke (2013) in Agression?
* Genes have an influence on people’s attitudes towards traditionalism
* Not due to twins sharing the same experiences growing up as they grew to in different environments
* As MZ’s apart were more similar than Dz’s apart
147
What Traits were Strongly Positivity Correlated in MZ twins but not in DZ twins in Ludeke’s Adoption Study in Aggression?
* Authoritarianism
| * Religiousness
148
What was the Sample for Ludeke’s Adoption Study in Aggression?
* Ps members of the Minnesota study of twins reared apart group
* 66 MZ twins
* 53 DZ twins
* Separated when younger + reunite later in life
149
What is Traditionalism that was Studied in Ludeke’s Adoption Study in Aggression?
An attitude made up by 3 other attitudes
150
What is Authoritarianism that was Studied in Ludeke’s Adoption Study in Aggression?
Expecting/requiring people to obey rules or laws whilst minimising personal freedom
151
What is Conservatism that was Studied in Ludeke’s Adoption Study in Aggression?
General preference for existing order of society + an opposition to efforts to bring about sharp change
152
What is Religiousness that was Studied in Ludeke’s Adoption Study in Aggression?
Way of life dedicated to religion + vows associated within it
153
What are the Advantages of using an Adoption Study w/ MZ + DZ twins compared to a Twin Study that Weren’t separated at birth?
* You can look into environmental factors + biological factors
* As, if MZ’s are more similar on behaviour than DZ’s - then genetics must be important influence on behaviour
154
What are Monozygotic Twins in Twin+Adoption Studies?
Identical twins - share 100% of genes
155
What are Dizygotic Twins in Twin+Adoption Studies?
Non identical twins - share about 50% of genes
156
What are Concordance Rates in Twin Studies?
* Probability that if 1 twin has a genetic characteristic then the other twin will aliso have this
* Expressed as a percentage
157
If Concordance Rate for a specific behaviour is Higher in MZ Twins compared to DZ twins, What does this tell us about that Behaviour?
* That behaviour is due to genetics
| * MZ twins are more likely to share this behaviour than DZ twins
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How do Twin Studies Contribute Info to the Nature/Nurture Debate?
* MZ twins + DZ twins compared
* If theres genetic (nature) contribution to a specific behaviour - MZs expected to be more similar than DZs on this trait
* If concordance rate low - then suggests environment (nurture) has bigger influence
159
How do Adoption Studies Contribute Info to the Nature/Nurture Debate?
* Concordance rates between adoptee + adopted parents for a trait compared to concordance rates between a biological parent
* Expected higher concordance rate in the adoptees biological parents
* Indicating trait is affected genetic’s nature
160
Which Behaviour did Gottesman + Shields (1966) Investigate using a Twin Study?
Schizophrenia
161
What is the Procedure of the Twin Study by Gottesman + Shields (1966)?
•Collected data on Ps:
-Hospital notes + tests to measure disordered thinking
-Self-report questionnaires/interviews
-Personality testing
•Categorised - so proband + co-twin have schizophrenia
•Both hospitalised + co-twin diagnosed related to schizophrenia
162
What Evidence from Gottesman + Sheilds (1966) Twin Study suggests that Schizophrenia is Linked to Genes?
* Concordance rates much higher in MZ twins for severe schizophrenia than DZ twins
* In DZ twins = 22%
* In MZ twins = 75%
163
What Evidence from Gottesman + Shields (1966) Twin Study suggests that Schizophrenia is Linked to Environmental factors?
* Not 100% of MZ twins had severe schizophrenia - only 75%
| * 21% of MZ’s w/ schizophrenia had a twin that was diagnosed as clinically normal
164
What is the Aim of the Adoption Study by Ludeke (2013)?
* Whether peoples attitudes could be influenced by their genes
* Research looking at - traditionalism (authoritarianism, conservatism, religiousness)
165
What is the Procedure of the Adoption Study by Ludeke (2013)?
Filled in various self report measures to determine attitudes
166
What is the Results of the Adoption Study by Ludeke (2013)?
* Strong positive correlation in the MZ twins
| * Strong positive correlation for only Conservatism in the DZ twins
167
What is the Aim of the Twin Study by Gottesman + Shields (1966)?
* Whether schizophrenia had a genetic basis
| * They examined records of patients in a psychiatric hospital over a 16 year period
168
What is the Sample of the Twin Study by Gottesman + Shields (1966)?
* 57 schizophrenia patients that were 1 member of a twin + tracked down the other twin
* 24 Monozygotic twin pairs
* 33 Dizygotic twin pairs
169
What is the Results of the Twin Study by Gottesman + Shields (1966)?
* Concordance rates for schizophrenia were higher in females compared to males fot MZ + DZ twins
* Concordance rates higher for MZ + DZ twins for severe schizophrenia compared to mild
* Concordance rates for severe schizophrenia was much higher in monozygotic twins (75%) compared to dizygotic twins (22%)
170
What is the Conclusions of the Twin Study by Gottesman + Shields (1966)?
* Schizophrenia does have a biological basis - developing its influenced by a persons gene
* But, not totally caused by genes as concordance rate for MZ genes were not 100%
* So, genes are a risk factor for developing it
* But, environmental triggers are necessary also
171
What are the Strengths of Twin Study?
* Scientific credibility is high
| * Has practically applications
172
What are the Weaknesses of Twin Study?
* Scientific credibility is lowered by confounding variables
* Generalising from the results of twins studies is difficult
173
How is Scientific Credibility a Strength of Twin Study?
* Provide unique research design - so able to study empirically influence on nature + nurture on behaviour
* Research provides a lot of objective - quantitative data
174
How is Gottesman + Shields (1966) an Example of Scientific Credibility being a Strength of Twin Studies?
* Concordance rate for schizophrenia higher in MZ twins (75%) compared to DZ twins (22%)
* So, genes are a risk factor for developing schizophrenia, but environmental triggers necessary also
175
How is Practical Applications a Strength of Twin Study?
The evidence provided can be very important when seeking preventions + treatments
176
How is Scientific Credibility is Lowered by Confounding Variables a Weakness of Twin Study?
* Environmental + genetic influences are the same
* Data in genetics may be confounded as the researchers can’t be sure that the environment isn’t also influencing the behaviour
177
How is Gottesman + Shields (1966) an Example of Scientific Credibility is Lowered by Confounding Variables a Weakness of Twin Studies?
* Even then ugh MZs more likely to have severe schizophrenia
* Can’t rule out possibility that the similarities are due to environmental influences as MZ twins may have been treated more similar to than DZ twins as they look the same + are the same sex
178
How is Low Generalisability a Weakness of Twin Study?
* Hard to generalise from results
| * Small sample + atypical - problem as it means sample is unlikely to represent the wider target population
179
How is Gottesman + Shields (1966) an Example of Generalisability being Low a Weakness of Twin Studies?
* Only had 57 twin pairs
* Not everyone are twins - so results they get showing a genetic element of schizophrenia may not be fully generalisable to others
180
What are the Strengths of Adoption Studies?
•Scientific credibility is high
181
What are the Weaknesses of Adoption Studies?
* Scientific credibility is lowered by confounding variables
* Low generalisability
182
How is High Scientific Credibility a Strength for Adoption Studies?
* Allow for clearer isolation of environmental influences •Particularly true of adoption studies using MZ’s + DZ’s that have been separated young + adopted
* As, validity is higher
183
How is Ludeke (2013) an Example of How High Scientific Credibility is a Strength of Adoption Studies?
* Findings suggest genes influence peoples attitudes towards traditionalism
* Researchers are confident that this is not due to the twins sharing the same experiences growing up as they grew up in different environments
184
How is Low Generalisability a Weakness of Adoption Studies?
* Small samples used + atypical - most people aren’t adopted
* So, results gained may not be fully generalisable to target population
185
How is Scientific Credibility is Lowered by Confounding Variables a Weakness of Adoption Study?
* Dont account does that that adoptive families are often chosen because of their similarity to biological family
* Child may have spent time w/ biological family before adoption
* So, researchers can’t be sure that any results showing genetic influences on behaviour are accurate so validity is lowered •As, upbringing even in the earliest days and weeks may be confounding variables
186
What is Schizophrenia Characterised by?
* +ve symptoms - hallucinations, delusions, thought disorder
| * -ve symptoms - lack of emotion + motivation
187
According to the Theory of Natural Selection, Why have Aggressive Behaviours Evolved in Humans?
* Due to survival of the fittest
* Helps us adapt to environment
* Trait most likely inherited by offspring
188
What are 3 Reasons given by Buss (1997) for Why Humans may have Evolved to become Aggressive?
* Humans hoard resources for survival + obtain resources from others by aggression
* Aggressive humans seeking resources present a risk to weaker humans - vulnerable
* Competition between same-sex to obtain most powerful of the opposite sex as they would be able to protect them and have higher chance of survival
189
What is the Evidence of Barash for the Existence of Gender Differences in Aggressive Behaviour?
* Few females are involved in violence in human societies
* Male professions involved in violence - soldiers, executioners, hunters, slaughter house workers
* Males more likely to be victims + perpetrators of violent criminal acts
190
According to Barash, Whats the Explanation for Gender Differences in Aggressive Behaviour?
* Females inherited evolutionary nature to be nurturing to ensure survival of their offspring
* For early man - males provided for + protected females + offspring - male display violence to obtain survival necessities
191
What is Status Competition according to Wilson + Daly (1985) in Aggression?
* Males participate in risky activities (violence) even if there is a possibility of injury,etc
* Because, females attracted to aggressive risk takers
* Engaging in aggressive behaviours they compete for higher status
192
What Evidence did Wilson + Daly (1985) Analyse in Support of Status Competition?
* Data from police homicide records in Detroit in 1972
* Analysed the age + sex of perpetrators + victims
* Categorised into types of homicidal crimes
193
What Evidence did Wilson + Daly (1985) Find in Support of Status Competition?
* More homicide committed by young, unmarried males
* Most victims of homicides were also young, unmarried males
* Homicides involved conflict caused by retaliation, showing off + jealousy
194
How does the Findings of Wilson + Daly (1985) Evidence Support the Theory that Male Violence is a Behaviour that has Evolved?
* The findings of the homicides in Detroit in 1972 are explained by status of competition
* Male violence due to theory of evolution
* As, they’re aggressive due to survival of the fittest where they have to be the most powerful to reproduce and stay alive
195
What are the Strengths of the Theory of Evolution as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Scientific credibility of original theory of evolution is high + supporting evidence is extensive
* There is supporting evidence of the idea that aggression has evolved
196
What are the Weaknesses of the Theory of Evolution as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Scientific credibility when the theory of evolution is applied to behaviour is lowered
* It is reductionist
* It is deterministic
197
How is Determinism a Weaknesses of the Theory of Evolution as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Suggests that humans have very little free will in choosing an aggressive response
* We are seen as being programmed by evolution so our responses are beyond our control
* This is a problem as it allows violent behaviour + criminality to be seen as not the fault of the perpetrator
198
How is Reductionism a Weaknesses of the Theory of Evolution as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Suggests the causes of aggressive behaviour can be explained by evolutionary pressures from thousands of years ago
* Overlooks the role of social + cognitive factors in causing aggression
* This is a problem as it lowers the validity of the theory
* As, it’s not a complete explanation of the complexities of human aggression
199
How is Scientific Credibility when the Theory of Evolution is applied to Behaviour is Lowered a Weaknesses of the Theory of Evolution as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Difficult to test that aggression evolved as a vital survival behaviour
* Can’t empirically test an idea that depends on environments in the past as we don’t have direct access to them
* Difficulty in explaining aggressive behaviour which doesn’t link to protection of self, mate + offspring
* So, more easily explained by social learning
* E.g. Bandura - Found that children learn aggression from watching others
200
How is Scientific Credibility of the Original Theory of Evolution being High + Supporting Evidence being Extensive a Strength of the Theory of Evolution as an Explanation of Aggression?
* It’s falsifiable (testable) - it predicts observable physical change will be seen in organisms as they adapt to survive + reproduce
* Darwin’s theory of evolution and natural selection is accepted by the scientific community as there is a lot of evidence
* But, harder time find evidence of the evolution of behavioural characteristics like aggression
201
What is the Evidence for Scientific Credibility of the Original Theory of Evolution being High + Supporting Evidence being Extensive a Strength of the Theory of Evolution as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Flinches from the Galápagos Islands
* Different islands had flinches w/ different size + shape of their beaks
* Beaks are different because they are adapted to different food sources on the different islands
202
How is Evidence by Wilson + Daly (1985) Supporting Evidence of Aggression Evolving a Strength of the Theory of Evolution as an Explanation of Aggression?
* analysis of homicides in Detroit
* Homicides mainly committed by young single males + victims were the same
* Also, they concerned social conflict such as showing off + jealousy
* Explained by evolutionary pressures as they were involved in status competition - where they were seen as high status males w/ violent behaviours
* So, more likely to attract a mate and reproduce
203
What is the name of the System that Produces Hormones?
Endocrine System
204
What is the Link between Testosterone + Aggression?
* High levels of testosterone is linked to high levels of aggression
* Testosterone influences serotonin levels in areas of the brain that are involved in aggressive reactions - e.g. amygdala + PFC
* Correlational links between low levels of serotonin and high levels of aggression
205
What is Testosterone?
* Androgen
* Male sex hormone
* Develops + maintains male characteristic
206
What are the Gender Differences in Aggression found by Maccoby + Jacklin (1974)?
•Boys more aggressive than girls •Men more frequently charged w/ violent offences and women •Testosterone provides an explanation for the fact that males are more aggressive than females on average as males produce more testosterone
207
How does Dabbs (1987) Research show a link between Testosterone + Aggression in Humans?
* Measured testosterone levels in the saliva of 89 male prisoners
* Violent prisoners have higher testosterone levels
* Non-violent prisoners have lower testosterone levels
208
How does Dabbs (1995) Research show a link between Testosterone + Aggression in Humans?
Found testosterone levels higher in both female + male prisoners who have been convicted of violent crimes
209
How does Olweus (1980) Research show a link between Testosterone + Aggression in Humans?
* Found boys who had higher levels of testosterone were more impatient + irritable
* They were more likely to respond aggressively to being provoked or threatened
210
How does Wagner (1979) Research show a link between Testosterone + Aggression In Mice?
* Observed aggression levels of male mice over a number of sessions
* After castration aggression levels dropped •When castrated mice are injected w/ testosterone their aggression levels rose back to pre-castration
211
What does Testosterone Increase in your body which Isn’t Aggression?
* Competitiveness and motivation to win
* Thrill experienced in risk-taking
* Motivation to protect their own group + attack other groups
212
Where is Cortisol Produce and what is it Responsible for?
* In adrenal glands
| * For managing stress
213
What is the link between Cortisol and Aggression?
* Cortisol inhibits aggressive behaviour by having an affect on hormones related to aggression (testosterone)
* High levels of cortisol inhibits effects of testosterone - so inhibits aggression
* Low levels of cortisol linked to increased aggression
214
How does the Study Brazman (2013) show links between Cortisol and Aggression?
* Looked at hormones in saliva in 7-9 year old boys in a psychiatric hospital
* Saliva from 17 boys - measured testosterone + cortisol levels
* -ve correlation = low levels of cortisol linked to higher binge of aggressive incidents
215
How has Psychological research on Testosterone + Aggression led to Social Control?
* Possible to develop ways to control behaviours
* E.g. Drug Medroxyprogesterone acetate - reduces levels of testosterone
* So, offenders report a reduction in sexual fantasies/impulse
* This technique is chemical castration
216
What are the Strengths of Hormones as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Scientific credibility is high
* Supporting evidence is extensive + wide ranged
* Practical applications
217
What are the Weaknesses of Hormones as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Scientific credibility is low
* Reductionism
* Overlooks the importance of other factors - e.g. social learning
218
How is Low Scientific Credibility a Weaknesses of Hormones as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Research constrained by ethical + practical issues
* So, evidence from studies using humans are reductionist
* As, not ethical to manipulate the IV of aggression or testosterone levels
* Correlation findings don’t provide cause + effect links so limits the validity + credibility
* However, animal research provides much better cause + effect links but limited by generalisability
219
How is Reductionism a Weaknesses of Hormones as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Only provides partial biological explanation of what causes aggression
* E.g. other research shows that the neurotransmitters such as serotonin,PFC + amygdala are very important in using biology to explain aggressive
220
What is an Example of how Overlooking Other Factors like Social Learning a Weaknesses of Hormones as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Bandura
| * Suggested children learn aggression from watching other people - nurture
221
How are Practical Applications Strengths of Hormones as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Individual differences in levels of testosterone are useful finding in reducing aggression •E.g. the drug medroxyprogesterone acetate reduces levels of testosterone in violent sexual offenders
* Offenders report a reduction in sexual fantasies/impulses
* This technique is chemical castration
222
How is High Scientific Credibility a Strength of Hormones as an Explanation of Aggression?
•Theories that link testosterone and aggression are falsifiable •Hormones like testosterone travel through the bloodstream so they’re directly observable + measurable in an objective quantitative way
223
How is the study by Dabbs (1987) an Example of how High Scientific Credibility is a Strength of Hormones as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Used saliva test to measure testosterone levels in prisoners •Make extensive use of correlation techniques + controls
* Individual variables like testosterone are isolated + measured w/ extraneous situational variables under tight control
224
How is Extensive + Wide Ranging Supporting Evidence a Strength of Hormones as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Used very well controlled lab-based experiments w/ animals •Research is easily replicated + similar findings have been recorded + repeated
* Gives high reliability to the findings of the studies
225
How is the study of Dabbs (1987) an Example of how Extensive + Wide Ranging Supporting Evidence is a Strength of Hormones as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Measured testosterone levels in saliva of 89 male prisoners
* Found that violent prisoners have high levels of testosterone
* Found that non-violent prisoners have low levels of testosterone
226
What are the Strengths of Brain Structure + Function as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Scientific credibility is high
* Supporting evidence is extensive + wide-ranging
* Practical applications
227
What are the Weaknesses of Brain Structure + Function as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Scientific credibility is limited by ethical + practical issues
* Generalisability of scientific evidence from animals is low
* Reductionism
228
How is Reductionism a Weakness of Brain Structure + Function as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Reducing complexities of human aggression down to brain structures underemphasises the complex biological interactions at work + ignores all the possible causes of aggression such as social learning
* E.g. Bandura - suggest children learn aggression from watching others
229
How is Low Generalisability from Animal Research a Weakness of Brain Structure + Function as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Humans have more complex brain than animals
* So, finding links in brain structures (amygdala) to aggression is difficult to generalise to humans
* There are ethical considerations raised by research like this and could argue that we shouldn’t be harming animals
230
How is Limited Scientific Credibility from Ethical + Practical Issues a Weakness of Brain Structure + Function as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Limited because of cause + effect links
* The main aim of scientific research between biology + aggression can’t be established in human research
* As, biological structures of interest (amygdala) can’t be manipulated in humans due to ethical + practical constraints
231
How is Raine an Example of how Limited Scientific Credibility from Ethical + Practical Issues is a Weakness of Brain Structure + Function as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Using PET scans found that there were anomalies in glucose metabolism in certain parts of the brain
* Such as PFC + amygdala of 41 murderers pleading NGRI
* There are too many other variables at work in causing their criminal behaviour so this is not justifiable
232
How is High Scientific Credibility a Strength of Brain Structure + Function as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Theories on the link between brain structure + dysfunction are falsifiable
* PET, FMRI + CAT scans allow researchers to directly observe the structure + functioning of the brain
* Allowing anomalies to be detected + measured in an objective manner
233
How is Grafman (1996) an Example of how High Scientific Credibility is a Strength of Brain Structure + Function as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Studied Vietnam war veterans
* Using CAT scans - showed that veterans w/ structured damage to this PFC were more aggressive than veterans w damage to another area of their brain
234
How are Practical Applications a Strength of Brain Structure + Function as an Explanation of Aggression?
* If you can link brain structures/functioning to aggressive behaviour
* Then it’s possible to develop ways to control undesirable aggressive behaviours using physical treatments
235
How is Monez an Example of how Practical Applications are a Strength of Brain Structure + Function as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Developed a pre-frontal lobotomy technique to treat aggressiveness in psychiatric illness
* Operation used to cut pathways in PFC severing its link w/ the limbic system
* Patients would stop acting aggressively
* But, they lost other features of their personality so it’s not ethical anymore
236
How is Extensive + Wide Ranging Supporting Evidence a Strength of Brain Structure + Function as an Explanation of Aggression?
* Very well controlled lab based experiments w/ animals used
* Research is easily replicated + similar findings have been found = high in reliability
* E.g. Use of animals in lab experiments on aggression allows individual differences + situational variables to be under the control of the researchers
* Selectively damaging parts of the animals brain whilst keeping situational variables constant to observe the outcomes
237
For the Background of the Classic Study by Raine, What’s NGRI Plea in Aggression?
* Mental disorder defence
* Defence that a defendant can plead in a criminal trial
* Arguing that the defendant isn’t responsible for his/her actions due to psychiatric disease or episodic at the time of the criminal act
238
For the Background of the Classic Study by Raine, What was known of Brain Abnormalities in Murderers?
* Imbalance in activity between left + right hemisphere in brain
* Due to, abnormalities in corpus callosum which connects the 2 hemispheres
239
What was Pilot Study by Raine (1994) that provided support for the Classic Study by Raine (1997) in brain abnormalities in murderers?
* 22 offenders compared to 22 ‘normal’ participants
| * Provided initial support for the notion of prefrontal dysfunction in this group
240
What are the Advantages of PET Scans?
* Reliable and valid technique for measuring the activity of the brain
* As, it detects blood flow, oxygen use + metabolism in the brain
241
What are the Disadvantages of PET Scans?
* Participants are exposed to radiation
* Interpretations of the images could be biased
* Resolution of the image is lower compared to fMRI - so it’s a less precise + valid
242
What is the Process of PET Scans?
* Small amount of harmless radioactive material is injected into participant
* This bonds to glucose in the blood stream
* As the brain uses glucose energy - the areas of the brain which are most active absorb it
* Glucose broken down but radioactive material remains
* It emits positrons which are picked up by the scanner
243
What do PET Scans Produce?
Coloured images of the level of activity occurring throughout the brain
244
What is the Aim of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
Discover using PET scans whether there are brain abnormalities in murderers who played NGRI
245
What was Hypothesised about the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Ps pleading NGRI would show brain dysfunction in areas of the brain associated with violence
* E.g. Pre frontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, corpus callosum
246
What is the Sample for the Experimental Group of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* 41 murders (or manslaughter)
* 39 men + 2 women
* Men age was 34 years old
247
What Variables was the Control Group matched to the Experimental Group on for the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Age
* Sex
* Psychiatric illness - e.g. schizophrenia
248
What is Method of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
Lab experiments using matched pairs design
249
What main Independent Variable of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
Whether the participant had committed murder/manslaughter or not
250
What main Dependent Variable of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
The results of the PET scans
251
How is the use of Mateched Pair Design a Benefit in the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Ps prove they’re not guilty
| * Decrease participant variables + increase validity
252
What was the Procedure of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Participants perform a continuous performance task
* Did a practice trial for 10 mins
* Radioactive glucose tracer injected into Ps
* After a further 32 mins of the task - subjects brain was PET scan to determine glucose metabolic rate in the brain + to determine the level of activity in various regions of the brain
253
What was the Continuous Performance Task Performed in the Procedure of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Stare at screen + various blurred symbols appear
* Participants press a button when particular symbol appears
* Requiring constant attention
254
What were the Results for the Cortical Areas of the Brain of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Lower levels of brain activity in both hemispheres compared to the control group in the PFC
* Lower levels of brain activity compared to control group in the parietal cortex
255
What were the Results for the Subcortical Areas of the Brain of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Lower levels of brain activity compared to control group in both hemispheres in the corpus callosum
* Abnormal asymmetrical levels of limbic system activity compared to the controls in the thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus
* No overall difference in level of activity in amygdala + temporal lobe + thalamus between murderers and control group
256
What were the Conclusions of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Lack of functioning in PFC - so, reduced ability to regulate activity of limbic system - less able to control aggressive + impulsive responses to threatening stimuli
* Abnormal functioning of amygdala - so fearless murders - so, increase violent acts
* Hippocampus + thalamus -abnormal activity - criminals can’t modify their behaviour by learning from their actions
* Corpus callosum not as active in murderers compared to controls so unable to regulate the negative mood + more violent due to low mood
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What are the Strengths of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Generalisability
* Reliability
* Applications
* Validity
* Ethics
258
What are the Weaknesses of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Generalisability
* Validity
* Reductionist
* Ethics
* Applications
259
How is High Generalisability a Strength of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Large sample of violent offenders - 41 murders who were pleading not guilty - unlikely to get a lot of violent murders
* Representative of the target population of very violent offenders
* The results of brain dysfunction gives valid info on this type of violent offender and the causes of their behaviour
260
How is Low Generalisability a Weakness of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Sample was mainly men - 2 woman + 39 males
* So, not representative of female violent offenders
* Sample is atypical as it only consisted of a certain group of violent offenders
* E.g. Sample of Ps pleading not guilty for reason of insanity - most don’t make this plea •So, results can’t be generalised to explain aggressive + violent behaviour in population
* Ps are American - so might be cultural differences in how murders act
261
How is High Reliability a Strength of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Standardised procedures + equipment used - so easy to replicate
* E.g. Ps given same continuous performance task to do for 32mins, Ps were scanned using the same PET scanner
* PET scans produce quantitative data about glucose levels in the brain which increases replicability
262
How are Applications a Strength of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Suggests that predispositions for committing violent criminal acts could be identified using PET scans
* Useful as violent offending could be predicted + early interventions could be used to prevent violent criminal offences
* E.g. PET scans show murderers have a normal brain activity in structures - PFC + amygdala
263
How are Applications a Weakness of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Cause + effect between brain dysfunction + violent murderer is not established in the study
* PET scans can’t + shouldn’t be used as a diagnostic tool to predict violent offending
* As, certain brain activity doesn’t mean somebody will be a violent offender
264
How is Validity a Strength of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Variables are well controlled
* Low confounding variables that could affect the outcome - differences in brains activity
* E.g. Ps didn’t take medication for 2 weeks leading up to the scan so that medication didn’t have an influence on brain activity
* Also, control group matched to experiment group on age, gender, psychiatric illness
* So we can be sure that any differences in brain activity between the murderers and control group were not due to individual differences
265
How is Validity a Weakness of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Didn’t have control and all confounding variables - e.g. upbringing of the sample
* Resolution of the images of PET scans are lower compared to fMRI scans
* As, accuracy of the images is lower
* E.g. Researchers may not have accurate info about differences in brain activity - as PET scan images may not clearly show the different types of brain activity occurring
266
How is Reductionism a Weakness of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Focuses on brain structure + activity as an explanation of violent criminal behaviour - so validity is reduced
* Its limited in its explanation of the causes of violent aggression
* E.g. Focused on functioning brain activity in PFC + amygdala to explain violent behaviour •Doesn’t take upbringing of participants into account or what was going on in their life at the time of the murder
267
How is Ethics a Strength of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* His research was approved by ethics committees
* Ethical guidelines were followed
* No deception + limited harm as only 1 injection
* All Ps gave consent
268
How is Ethics a Weakness of the Classic Study by Raine in Aggression?
* Ps not aware of the implications of the consent - some of them suffered from psychiatric illness like schizophrenia
* Under pressure to take part in study from council to build up their case for NGRI plea
* Not fully protected from harm
* E.g Taken of medication for two weeks + all subject to invasive procedure of the injection of a radioactive tracer
269
What is Serotonin?
A chemical neurotransmitter in the body
270
What is the Link between Serotonin + Aggression?
* Low levels of serotonin in PFC results in region no longer inhibiting flight/fight response of amygdala
* So increase impulsive aggression
271
What brain scanning technique gives a structural image?
CAT scans
272
What brain scanning technique measures activity in the brain?
* FMRI
| * PET Scans
273
Where are the hypothalamus and amygdala found in the brain?
Limbic system
274
What is the role of the Hypothalamus in Aggression?
* Controlling hormone levels in the body
| * Ensure levels of testosterone are controlled + maintaining homoeostasis •Testosterone has been linked to aggression
275
What is the role of Amygdala in Aggression?
* Responds to threatening stimuli w/ fight/flight response - so has important role in reactive aggression
* Connect to PFC + this connection may lead to aggression - necessary to initiate aggression
276
What is Reactive a
| Aggression?
Aggression shown in direct response to a provocative stimulus w/ a little planning
277
What is the role of the Pre-Frontal Cortex in Aggressive Behaviour?
* Allows us to control reactive aggressive impulses that stem from the amygdala
* This inhibits us from automatically reacting to threats + allows us to think about an appropriate course of action
* When we have a particular goal in mind we can still act aggressively from PFC but we stop + think first
* Regulates aggressive behaviour
278
How does Clinical Drug Studies provide Evidence of the Role of Serotonin in Aggression?
* Use of drugs raises the levels of serotonin in the brain
* E.g. antidepressants
* Antidepressant drugs increase serotonin levels + reduce impulsive aggression
* So, increased serotonin levels do reduce aggression
279
How does Ferrari’s lab experiment with Rats provide Evidence of the Role of Serotonin in Aggression?
* Studied link between neurotransmitters + aggression
* Rats fight every day by introducing an intruder rat into the cage
* On 11th day no intruder rat was introduced
* Measured levels of serotonin + dopamine in test rats brain
* Test rat serotonin levels decrease because they were anticipating a fight
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What are the Advantages of CAT Scans?
* Less sensitive to movement of the participant
* Provides detailed structural images of the brain which is useful for detecting structural abnormalities
* Scanning Ps w/ metal implants doesn’t produce difficulties
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What are the Disadvantages of CAT Scans?
* Participants exposed to radiation but only a small amount
| * Not sensitive enough to detect precise details of soft tissue in the brain
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What is the Process of CAT Scans?
* Rotating an x-ray machine around the access of the body
* A 3-dimensional image of the structure of a persons brain is built-up which shows tumours and other physical deformities
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How can CAT Scans be used to explain Human Behaviour?
* Use x-rays to produce a structural image of the brain
* So, when investigating abnormal behaviour they can detect any structural abnormalities + associate these w/ the behaviour
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How does Grafman (1996) provide Evidence that Supports the role of the Pre-Frontal Cortex in Aggression?
* Studied war veterans from Vietnam
* CT scans show that veterans w/ damage to their PFC were more aggressive than veterans w/ damage to other areas of the brain
* Frontal lobes are an important structure in brain for inhibiting aggression
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How does the case of Phineas Gage support the Role of the Pre-Frontal Cortex in Aggressive Behaviour?
* Damaged his pre-frontal lobes
* Became a different person - an aggressive drunk who showed poor social judgement
* Suggested that the PFC is involved in the moderation of our aggressive/violent behaviour
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What are the Advantages of fMRI Scans?
* Non-invasive as doesn’t involve exposure to radiation - so more ethical than PET + CAT scans
* High validity + reliability
* As it provides exact locations of increased neural activity during tasks + sensitivity to bloodflow changes is very precise
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What are the Disadvantages of fMRI Scans?
* Low validity as analysis + interpretation of images can be subjective
* Unable to detect activity of individual neurons so gives limited info on functioning
* Scanning Ps that have metal implants can be trouble due to strong magnetic fields
* Ps need to remain very still during the scan
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What do fMRI Scans Detect?
* Rate at which Oxyhemoglobin becomes deoxyhemoglobin
* This technique is called BOLD - blood oxygen level dependent contrast imaging
* If area of brain has high BOLD - then that specific area has a role in producing the behaviour
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How does the fMRI detect BOLD Contrast?
* Produces strong magnetic field around Ps
* Causes molecules to move in a slightly different way + release radio waves which the scanner can detect
* Different types of tissue+molecule release different types of radio waves
* So, scanner detects difference between radio waves emitted from oxyhemoglobin + radio waves emitted from deoxyhemoglobin •Enabling the BOLD contrast to be detected
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How is the study by Coccaro (2006) Evidence of the role of the Limbic System in Aggression?
* Studied people w/ intermittent explosive disorder to show that overactive amygdala is associated w/ high levels of reactive aggression
* FMRI scans done after seeing threatening stimuli
* Patients w/ IED had greater activity in the amygdala when they saw the threatening stimuli
* But, had smaller activity in PFC so less able to inhibit the amygdala - which doesn’t add up
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What is Homeostasis?
* Process that maintain stability of the human body in response to external conditions
* E.g. temperature
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How is the case study of Charles Whitman who was a Brain Damaged Patient Evidence of the role of the Limbic System in Aggression?
* Killed his wife, mother + 16 people
* Wounded 33 others during shooting rampage on campus uni
* After his death - he was found to have a cancerous tumour in the hypothalamus + near the amygdala
