Pathological morphology - bleeding etc. Flashcards
nosebleed
Epistaxis
Hemoptysis
coughing up of blood or bloody sputum from the lungs or airway (haemoptoe).
vomiting of blood
Hematemesis
uterine bleeding
Metrorrhagia
patch contusion could also be called
Ecchymosis so a bruise
Vibex is what
An extensive patch of subcutaneous extravasation of blood. /enlengthened contusion
Sugillation means
a pointed, confluent subcutaneous contusion so another word for a type of bruise
Suffusion
subcutaneous, bigger than sugillation. A big bruise essentially
haemorrhagic diathesis is
a predisposition to abnormal blood clotting, caused by disturbances in blood clotting process.
haemorrhagic infiltration
tissues may infiltrate with blood
Extravasate can pressurise tissues and cause their atrophy, often damaging.
Extravasate to tissues and cavities will
clot, leukocytes disintegrate, erythrocytes undergo lysis and the pigments hemosiderin and hematoidin
are formed from hemoglobin.
Lymphostasis is
interruption of lymph circulation and blockade of
lymph flow in tissues due to obstructed vessels or excessive production of lymph in tissues.
elephantiasis
gross enlargement
Chronic lymphostasis and proliferation of connective tissue may cause hindlimb elephantiasis.
Lymphorrhagia is
escape of lymph from a damaged vessel.
Lymph vessels that are extremely filled up with lymph can rupture easily, even after minor traumas.
Lymph extravasate is
lymph leakage in the soft connective tissue.
It occurs more often in the subcutaneous and intramuscular tissues and gain the maximum volume on the 3–4 day after the trauma.
Lymph extravasates look similar to
edemas, they fluctuate and contain yellowish transparent liquid – lymph.
They result in connective tissue changes in tissues, or sometimes they encapsulate and form cysts, and
if complications develop, they can cause skin necrosis and mucous processes.
In case of thoracic duct rupture, what two things might occur?
In case of thoracic duct rupture chylous ascites and hydrothorax may occur.
Thrombosis of lymph vessels occurs due to
inflammation of lymph vessels and the tissue around them.
With septic conditions and wide-spread peritonitis, when the lymph is filled with cell elements and fibrinogen, even thoracic duct thrombus may develop.
Filtration of the fluid components of blood (blood serum) into tissues and body cavities is
transudation (transsudatio)
the serous liquid in the tissues and cavities is
transudate (transsudatum).Transudate contains up to 2% of protein.
Transudation depends on (3-4)
the difference in hydrostatic pressure in
tissues and blood vessels,
the difference of osmotic pressure (in blood and tissue fluid),
the difference of oncotic pressure,
but also on the permeability of blood vessels and the unobstructed flow in blood and lymph vessels.
Edema is is a condition of ?
Whilst hydrops is..?
of abnormally large fluid volume in tissues,
with hydrops it accumulates in body cavities as well.
Inflammatory edemas are
a separate category of edemas. In that case there is more protein in the fluid (more than 2%). That is inflammatory exudate (exudatum).
Describe skin edema (3)
the subcutaneous connective tissue thickens, the edema is of doughy consistency,
and when pushed with a finger a dent is
noticeable and fills very slowly. (pitting)
Edema of mucous membrane makes the
membrane
thick and corrugated.
With pulmonary edema the transudate accumulates in
alveoli and moves to bronchi and trachea from there.
When palpated, the lungs are doughy and their cut surfaces ooze watery fluid with air bubbles.
Acute edemas disappear after the
underlying causes are removed, chronic edemas cause
formation of connective tissue.
Edemas and hydrops are reversible processes. They disappear, when the underlying causes are eliminated. The transudate will absorb, the
damaged tissues will regenerate. Irreversible changes occur, if
the tissues have undergone permanent connective tissue changes.
Newborn and young animals are especially sensitive to dehydration, as they have
about twice as much extracellular fluid as adult
animals.
Dehydration means that
there is loss of both intracellular and extracellular water.
It is life-threatening for an organism to lose about 25% of extracellular water.
anhydraemia
an abnormal reduction of water in the blood.
Adaptation is a biological concept that comprises
all the processes of a living organism and its mutual communication with the external
environment.
Adaptive changes appear both with medical conditions and general health and their aim is to guarantee survival of the species and
reproduction of the population.
As adaptive and compensatory processes associate in case of diseases, they are often dealt with as adaptive-compensatory processes.
Compensation is a form of
adaptation and takes place when a
disturbance of an organ or tissue is balanced by appropriate changes in its structure.
As adaptive and compensatory processes associate in case of diseases, they are often dealt with as adaptive-compensatory processes.
Hypertrophy is
enlargement of an organ or body part due to cell enlargement.
hyperplasia is
an organ or body part enlarges due to cell propagation (the number of cells increases)
The spleen and lymph nodes, for example, can increase more than fivefold, when the number of cells increases.
Both hypertrophy and hyperplasia enhance
cell function, which enhances the function of the whole organ.
True hypertrophy and pseudohypertrophy are to be distinguished.
what is the difference?
With true hypertrophy, the organ enlarges due to changes in the parenchymal tissue, which increases the organ function.
With pseudohypertrophy, the abnormal enlargement of an organ or body structure is caused by an overgrowth of fatty and fibrous tissues and the organ function may even deteriorate.
The hypertrophic proliferations that
occur when connective and fatty tissue ‘occupies’ spaces of necrotic tissues,
are also termed
pseudohypertrophy.
Physiological hypertrophy is
enlargement of organs (muscles, for example) due to increased physiological activity or load, which makes the organ more functional.
Pathologic hypertrophy occurs when
the weakened function of an organ or body part is balanced by the unharmed cells becoming bigger and more functional.
That kind of hypertrophy can develop only with good nutrition and care. In poor living conditions this compensation will not take place and further pathologic changes may occur.
According to the underlying causes, hypertrophy can be (5)
compensatory,
substitution or vicarious,
hormonal or correlative.
Compensatory hypertrophy occurs when
an organ is under higher than normal functional workload due to some pathologic process in the organism.
Most often it affects the heart. Hypertrophy of the left ventricle is more common.
Hypertrophy of the right ventricle occurs mainly due to lung damage or narrowing of the lung artery lumen, especially after a long-term emphysema.
Compensatory or vicarious hypertrophy occurs with
paired organs, when one of them loses the functionality (kidneys, ovaries, salivary
glands etc.)
Hormonal or correlative (or neurohumoral) hypertrophy occurs
as compensating hypertrophy in case of endocrine glands disturbances.
For example, the pituitary gland will hypertrophy, if the functioning of the thyroid gland is partially or entirely missing.
In case of loss of the function of ovaries, the thyroid gland, pituitary gland and adrenals will hypertrophy. In case of age-related degeneration of testicles, prostate hypertrophies.
Atrophy is
a wasting or decrease in size of a body organ, tissue, or part.
The decrease is caused by reduction of cell volume, in more severe cases also reduction of the number of cells.
The shape of organs and tissues does not change much with atrophy. Atrophy means that their functions are weakened or cease.
Physiological atrophy is a
retrograde change of the body or of an organ or involution (involutio), which occurs with animals through their life, from birth to death.
Thus, newborns’ umbilical arteries obliterate and the thymus obliterates when animals become older. Involution also occurs with
the uterus and mammary glands.
Senile atrophy (atrophia senilis) is
the natural atrophy of tissues and organs occurring with advancing age.
Pathologic atrophy develops due to
several harmful factors, mainly insufficient blood flow in cells and tissues;
disturbances in endocrine glands,
central and peripheral nervous system, tumors.
General atrophy or cachexia (cacnexia) is
simultaneous atrophic process in many organs and tissues, the whole organism is debilitated.
Cachexia occurs with starvation, severe diseases, malignant tumors, conditions of hematopoietic organs etc.
Local atrophy is classified
according to the underlying causes: (7)
1) starvation atrophy
2) dysfunctional or inactivity atrophy
3) excessive activity atrophy
4) compression atrophy
5) neurogenic or neurotrophic atrophy
6) hormonal atrophy
7) toxic atrophy
Excessive activity atrophy (atrophia ex activitate) occurs mainly with
work animals, who are exploited excessively.
Compression atrophy (atrophia ex compressione) is caused by
long-term mechanical pressure.
The pressure can be applied by tumors, for example, excessive connective tissue, scar tissue.
Older horses often have atrophy of the right lobe of liver, caused by pressure of colon.
Neurogenic or neurotrophic atrophy (atrophia neurotica seu a. neurotrophia) occurs when
innervation stops, for example due to a nerve
being cut.
Toxic atrophy (atrophia toxica) occurs when
low concentration poisons and toxins from fodder, microbes, parasites affect cells and tissues for a longer time.
Atrophies can also be classified as (2)
simple and brown atrophy.
Simple atrophy is reduction of an organ, brown atrophy is reduction of an organ and accumulation of yellowish brown pigment lipofuscin, which makes the atrophic organs brown in colour.
Hypoplasia (hypoplasia) is
incomplete development or underdevelopment of an organ or tissue.
It is a congenital anomaly of reduced size of organs and tissues and it is different from atrophies that occur in normally developed organs.
Metaplasia is
transformation of tissue from one type to another, with change in function as well.
So, cartilage could transform to bone
tissue, one type of epithelial tissue to another type epithelial tissue etc.
Metaplasia is more frequent in
epithelial and connective tissues and rare in
other tissues.
Transformation of tissue from one type to another is possible only in
tissues that have developed from the same embryonic leaf.
Metaplasia is caused by
pathologic processes (inflammations, avitaminosis etc.).
Thus, in case of long-term mastitis, the udder milk ducts cuboidal epithelium may be replaced with multilayer stratified epithelium.
Regeneration is
the natural renewal of dead or harmed tissues,
through proliferation of cells in the parts of tissues that have survived. The damaged tissue is replaced by a tissue of the same type.
Regeneration can also be intracellular. It happens in cells that do not divide and regeneration results in new elements (reproduction of cytoplasm organoids) to replace the ultrastructural elements in cells.
Regeneration is of three types:
1) physiological
2) reparative
3) pathological
If the regenerated tissue is identical to the damaged tissue (e.g. epidermis), it is
full regeneration or complete restitution
if the new tissue differs from the damaged tissue, it is
incomplete regeneration or substitution. Substitution is more frequent.
Restitution occurs in tissues where
the cells have not lost the ability to reproduce.
For example, comparatively big damages in connective, bone, skin and mucous tissue can be replaced with identical tissue.
Incomplete regeneration means
that the defect is filled with connective tissue and a scar will develop.
Regeneration can also be pathological (2)
hyporegenerative and
hyperregenerative.
Hyporegenerative process is
slow, the regenerate is weak or missing.
Hyperregenerative process is
excessive formation of the regenerate, extra flesh on skin is formed (keloids).
Organisation in pathology is
replacement of dead tissues and other
foreign masses with reactively developing connective tissue.
Dead tissues, thrombi, fibrinoid exudate can be replaced with
connective tissue, if the dead tissue undergoes the process of absorption and if cells of connective tissue are able to invade the dead tissue.
In that case connective tissue proliferates to replace the dead tissue, which will become
scar tissue (organisation in the narrower sense).
Encapsulation is a form of
organisation develops, when the dead tissues, foreign objects, parasites etc. do not absorb and cells of connective tissue are not able to invade the dead tissue.
In that case a connective tissue capsule develops around the dead tissues, foreign objects etc. The capsule separates them from living tissues.
When a wound heals, it is also a process of
of organisation.
granulation tissue is
tissue rich in cells and capillaries is granulation tissue.
clotted blood, inflammatory exudate and necrotic tissue will be replaced by excessive new connective tissue, rich in cells and blood capillaries between them voila
