Pathological morphology - adaptive, compensatory & regenerative processes

Question 1

Adaptation is

Answer 1

a biological concept that comprises all the processes of a living organism and its mutual communication with the external environment.

Question 2

Compensation is

Answer 2

a form of adaptation and takes place when a disturbance of an organ or tissue is balanced by appropriate changes in its structure.

Question 3

Regeneration is

Answer 3

the natural renewal of dead or harmed tissues, through proliferation of cells in the parts of tissues that have survived.

Question 4

hypogenesis/agenesis

Answer 4

underdevelopment of an organ or function, during the period of embryogenesis

Question 5

hypoplasia/aplasia

Answer 5

refers to a lack of cells in an organ or tissue (after birth)

Question 6

difference between hypertrophy and hyperplasia

Answer 6

Hypertrophy refers to an increase in the size of individual cells/muscle fibers, whereas hyperplasia refers to an increase in the number of cells/muscle fibers.

Question 7

atrophy definition and causes

Answer 7

Definition: wasting or decrease in size of a body organ, tissue, or part. Shrinkage in cell size by loss of cell substance.

Causes:
Reduced workload
Loss of innervation
Reduced blood supply
Inadequate nutrition
Loss of endocrine stimulation
Ageing

Question 8

Grossly, atrophied organs have

Answer 8

a decreased weight and volume,
may have a loose covering membrane,
have tortuous blood vessels too large for the volume of tissue, and
often are firmer because of fibrosis.

Question 9

Microscopically, cells of atrophied tissues are

Answer 9

smaller and/or reduced in number,
decreasing amount of cytoplasm,
cell nucleus is in normal size.

Question 10

name different types of atrophy

Answer 10

simple atrophy
compression atrophy
brown atrophy

excessive activity atrophy
neurogenic or neurotrophic atrophy

Question 11

simple atrophy is

Answer 11

reduction of an organ, one cell type.

Question 12

compression atrophy is

Answer 12

caused by long-term mechanical pressure

Question 13

brown atrophy is

Answer 13

reduction of an organ and accumulation of yellowish brown pigment lipofuscin, which makes the atrophic organs brown in colour.

Question 14

excessive activity atrophy occurs

Answer 14

mainly with work animals, who are exploited excessively

Question 15

neurogenic or neurotrophic atrophy occurs when

Answer 15

innervation stops, for example due to a nerve being cut.

Question 16

causes of hypertrophy (2+3)

Answer 16

Occurs in permanent cells, is due to synthesis of more cellular structural components.

Physiological causes:
Increased functional demand, e.g. skeletal muscle (mechanical)
Hormonal, e.g. uterus in pregnancy (usually a combination of hypertrophy and hyperplasia)

Pathological causes:
Increased functional demand e.g. cardiac muscle
Hypertension
Valvular heart disease

Question 17

Microscopically, hypertrophic cells are

Answer 17

bigger than normal, nucleus is normal size.

Question 18

Hyperplasia causes (2 + 1)

Answer 18

Hyperplasia can only occur in tissues containing labile(dividing) or stable cells.

Physiological hyperplasia causes:
Hormonal e.g. endometrium
Compensatory, e.g. partial hepatectomy

Pathological hyperplasia causes:
Excessive hormone/growth factor stimulation

(Often occurs alongside hypertrophy
Associated with increased risk for cancer
E.g. Prostate, endometrium)

Question 19

statmokinesis

Answer 19

an anomaly of mitosis, the stopping of mitosis

typically results in cell death

Question 20

multipolar mitosis is what and results in what

Answer 20

Abberant mitotic figures, where the chromosomal material is pulled to more than two poles.

may result in giant cell formation

Question 21

aneuploid

Answer 21

having an abnormal number of chromosomes in a haploid set (= single set of chromosomes)

Question 22

what is a giant cell

Answer 22

(also known as a multinucleated giant cell, or multinucleate giant cell) is a mass formed by the union of several distinct cells (usually histiocytes), often forming a granuloma.

Question 23

Langhans giant cells are

Answer 23

giant cells found in granulomatous conditions

They are formed by the fusion of epithelioid cells (macrophages), and contain nuclei arranged in a horseshoe-shaped pattern in the cell periphery.

Question 24

a cytomegalovirus is

Answer 24

a genus of viruses in the order Herpesvirales

enlarged cells with enlarged nuclei present in the cells

Typical “owl eye” intranuclear inclusion indicating CMV infection

Question 25

what are epithelioid macrophages

Answer 25

Epithelioid macrophage is an activated macrophage that resembles an epithelial cell with finely granular, pale eosinophilic cytoplasm and central, ovoid nucleus (oval or elongate). This cell type is able to merge into one another to form aggregates.

also called epithelioid cells

Question 26

Metaplasia is

Answer 26

defined as abnormal change in the nature of a tissue.

is a potentially reversible change in which one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type of the same germ line. Specialized epithelium is replaced by less-specialized epithelium.

Question 27

metaplasia of epithelium

Answer 27

morphologic finding that refers to the replacement of a group of one type of epithelial cells (e.g., glandular epithelial cells) to another type of epithelial cells (e.g., squamous epithelial cells).

Question 28

dyskeratosis

Answer 28

is abnormal keratinization occurring prematurely within individual cells or groups of cells below the stratum granulosum

Question 29

types of regeneration

Answer 29

physiological

reparative
- restitution (restitutio ad integrum)
- incomplete regeneration (substitutio)

pathological
- hyporegenerative
- hyperregenerative (extra flesh – caro luxurians)

Question 30

Organisation in pathology is

Answer 30

replacement of dead tissues and other foreign masses with reactively developing connective tissue.

e.g. Encapsulation (calcifications)

Wound heals by first intention (per primam intentionem) or by second intention (per secundam intentionem).

Question 31

define Wound healing by first intention and latin translation

Answer 31

per primam intentionem

Healing by first (primary) intention, or primary closure, refers to the healing of a wound in which the edges are closely re-approximated.

In this type of wound healing, union or restoration of continuity occurs directly with minimal granulation tissue and scar formation.

Question 32

define wound healing by second intention and give latin translation

Answer 32

per secundam intentionem

Secondary intention healing means a wound will be left open (rather than being stitched together) and left to heal by itself, filling in and closing up naturally.