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AP Bio > Part 8: Animal Structure and Function > Flashcards

Part 8: Animal Structure and Function Flashcards

0
Q

Extracellular digestion

A

Food is digested in a gastrovascular cavity

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1
Q

Intracellular digestion

A

Digestion occurs within food vacuoles, system used by simple organisms

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2
Q

Mouth

A

First stop of digestive process, oral cavity, site of the beginning of mechanical and chemical digestion

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3
Q

Mastication

A

Mechanical digestion, chewing, softening, breaking up of food

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4
Q

Saliva

A

Secreted by salivary glands, contains enzyme salivary amylase, begins chemical breakdown of starch into maltose

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5
Q

Bolus

A

Chewed food, shaped like a ball

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6
Q

Pharynx

A

Close to/part of? Esophagus

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8
Q

Peristalsis

A

Wavelike motion that food moves through the esophagus in, push food toward stomach

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10
Q

Stomach

A

Thick, muscular sac that temporarily stores ingested food, partially digests proteins, and kills bacteria

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11
Q

Gastric juices

A

Secreted by stomach, contain digestive enzymes (pepsin) and HCl

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12
Q

Chyme

A

Partially digested food ready to enter small intestine

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13
Q

Pyloric sphincter

A

Chyme moves through it to enter duodenum (first part of sm int)

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14
Q

Pancreas

A

Secretes enzymes into sm int

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15
Q

Trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic lipase, and pancreatic amylase

A

Enzymes secreted by pancreas

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16
Q

Pancreatic duct

A

How the enzymes are secreted into the sm int

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17
Q

Bile

A

In sm int, emulsifier-mechanically breaks up fats into smaller fat droplets
Made in liver, stored in gall bladder

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18
Q

Villi and microvilli

A

Tiny, finger like projections of the intestine that absorb broken down food

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19
Q

Lacteals

A

Lymph vessels in the villus that absorb fatty acids

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20
Q

Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin

A

Hormones involved in the digestive system

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21
Q

Large intestine

A

Reabsorbs water and salts

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22
Q

Feces

A

Leftover undigested food

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23
Q

Rectum

A

Second to last stop, holding place for feces

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24
Q

Anus

A

Where feces is released

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25
Q

Tracheae

A

Special breatig tubes in complex organisms

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26
Q

Spiracles

A

Tiny openings in the tracheae that allow air to enter

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27
Q

Lungs and gills

A

Two main breathing systems of vertebrates

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28
Q

Larynx

A

Voice box

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29
Q

Epiglottis

A

Special flap that covers trachea when swallowing to prevent food from entering trachea

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30
Q

Left and right bronchus

A

Two tubes that service the lungs

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31
Q

Bronchioles

A

Smaller tubes in the lungs

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32
Q

Alveolus

A

Tiny air sad at the end of each bronchiole, enlarge surface area of lungs

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33
Q

Capillary

A

Blood vessel close to the alveolus, O and CO2 diffuse from/to alveolus when breathing

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34
Q

Hemoglobin

A

Iron containing protein found in blood cells that carries O around body

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35
Q

Plasma

A

Fluid of blood

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36
Q

Bicarbonate ions

A

HCO3-

CO2 plus water, what most CO2 in the body is turned into

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37
Q

Inspiration

A

Process of taking in oxygen

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38
Q

Expiration

A

Process of breathing out CO2

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39
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Control respiration rate

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40
Q

Diaphragm

A

Muscle that regulates breathing

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43
Q

Esophagus

A

Second part of digestive tract, throat, gateway to stomach

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45
Q

Crop

A

Third stop on some organisms’ digestive tract, storage organ

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46
Q

Open circulatory system

A

Blood is carried by open-ended vessels that spill blood into the body cavity
In Arthropods the cavity is called the sinuses

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47
Q

Closed circulatory system

A

Blood flows continuously through a network of blood vessels

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48
Q

Right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle

A

Four chambers of the heart, in the order of blood flow through heart

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49
Q

Systematic circulation

A

Blood leaves heart, travels through body, and returns to heart

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50
Q

Aortic semilunar valve

A

How blood leaves the heart, end of left ventricle

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51
Q

Aorta

A

Largest artery in body

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52
Q

Arteries

A

Branches of the aorta, carry blood away from heart

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53
Q

Arterioles

A

Small arteries

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54
Q

Capillaries

A

Smallest arteries, blood cells must go through single file, intermingle with tissues to exchange nutrients, gases and wastes

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55
Q

Deoxygenated

A

Without oxygen, specifically referring to blood cells

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56
Q

Venules

A

Small veins

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57
Q

Veins

A

Blood vessels that carry blood to the heart, have valves that prevent the backward flow of blood

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58
Q

Superior vena cava and inferior vena cava

A

Two blood vessels that carry blood to right atrium, where it enters the heart

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59
Q

Right atrioventricular valve, tricuspid

A

How blood gets from right atrium to right ventricle

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60
Q

Pulmonary circulation

A

Blood leaving right ventricle goes to lungs to be oxygenated, then returns to left atrium

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61
Q

Pulmonary semilunar valve

A

How blood leaves the right ventricle, feeds to pulmonary artery

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62
Q

Pulmonary artery

A

Large artery between heart and lungs, branches into right and left to serve both lungs

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63
Q

Oxygenated

A

Having oxygen, with respect to blood

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64
Q

Pulmonary veins

A

Lungs to heart blood vessel

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65
Q

Left atrioventricular valve, bicuspid, or mitral valve

A

How blood gets from left atrium to left ventricle

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66
Q

Thermoregulation

A

Maintenance of a fairly stable body temperature regardless of external conditions

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67
Q

Endotherms

A

Animals that regulate their internal body temperatures

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68
Q

Counter current exchange

A

Arteries with warm blood next to veins with cold blood, one warms the other

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69
Q

Ectotherms

A

Animals that gain and lose heat by way of environment

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70
Q

Sinoatrial node

A

Natural pacemaker, tissues in right atrium that start the beat of the heart

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71
Q

Atrioventricular node

A

First stop for the impulse given by SA node

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72
Q

Bundle of His, Purkinje fibers

A

Last stops of heartbeat impulse

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73
Q

Systole

A

Part of the cycle in which contraction occurs

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74
Q

Diastole

A

Part of the cycle in which relaxation occurs

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75
Q

Red blood cells, erythrocytes

A

Oxygen-carrying cells, contain hemoglobin, lack nucleus

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76
Q

White blood cells, leukocytes

A

Fight infection, protect body from foreign organisms

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77
Q

Platelets

A

Cell fragments involved in blood clotting

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78
Q

Bone marrow

A

Site of blood cell synthesis, center of bones

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79
Q

A, B, AB, O

A

Four blood groups
O = universal donor
AB= universal recipient

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80
Q

Antibodies

A

Immune substances that will bind and destroy foreign blood (if the wrong type)

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81
Q

Rh factors

A

Antigens found on red blood cells

Rh+ has them, Rh- doesn’t

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82
Q

Lymphatic system

A

Made up of a network of vessels that conduct lymph, plays important role in fluid homeostasis
Collects, filters, and returns fluid to blood by contraction of adjacent muscles, fights infection, removes excess fluid from body tissue

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83
Q

Lymph

A

Clear, watery fluid formed from interstitial fluid

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84
Q

Lymph node

A

Mass of tissue found along he course of a lymph vessel, contains many lymphocytes, swell when fighting an infection

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85
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Important in fighting infection, multiply rapidly when in contact with an antigen

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86
Q

Antigen

A

Foreign substance recognized by immune system

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87
Q

Immune system

A

One of the body’s defense systems, triggered by antigens

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88
Q

Phagocytes

A

Engulf antigens

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89
Q

Complement proteins

A

Lyse cell wall of antigens

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90
Q

Interferons

A

Inhibit viral replication, activate surrounding cells that have antiviral actions

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91
Q

Inflammatory response

A

Series of events in response to antigen invasion of physical injury

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92
Q

Pathogen

A

Disease-causing agent

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93
Q

Cell-mediated immunity

A

Involves T-cells

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94
Q

Major histocompatibility complex

A

Cell markers that distinguish between self and foreign cells

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95
Q

Memory T-cells

A

Recognize pathogens they have encountered before

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96
Q

Helper T-cells

A

Activate B-lymphocytes and other T-cells in responding to the infected cells

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97
Q

Cytotoxic T-cells

A

Recognizes and kill infected cells

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98
Q

AIDS

A

Disease from HIV that interferes with immune system

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99
Q

T-lymphocytes

A

Fight infection

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100
Q

B-lymphocytes

A

Produce antibodies

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101
Q

Nitrogenous wastes

A

Products containing nitrogen that are not needed by the body

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102
Q

Ammonia

A

NH3, byproduct of protein decomp. By body

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103
Q

Uric acid and urea

A

Some animals convert ammonia to one of them so they are not harmed by the ammonia

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104
Q

Nephridia and Malpighian tubes

A

Excretory organs in invertebrates

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105
Q

Kidney

A

Major organ that regulates excretion in humans

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106
Q

Nephrons

A

Functional units of the kidney

Consists of the Bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tube, and collecting duct

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107
Q

Renal cortex

A

Outer-most section of kidney, contains Bowman’s capsule and proximal convoluted tubules

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108
Q

Renal medulla

A

Inner section of kidney, contains loop of Henle and distal convoluted tubules

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109
Q

Renal artery

A

Blood vessel that leads to kidney and branches into aterioles, then timing capillaries

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110
Q

Glomerulus

A

Ball of capillaries that “sits” within a Bowman’s capsule, filters blood, forces plasma from capillaries into Bowman’s capsule

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111
Q

Filtrate

A

Plasma that is forced into the Bowman’s capsule

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112
Q

Urine

A

Filtrate modified in the collecting duct

113
Q

Ureters

A

Tube that carries urine from kidney to bladder

114
Q

Bladder

A

Sad that holds urine until the body can release it

115
Q

Urethra

A

Tube from bladder to outside of body

116
Q

Filtration

A

Blood is filtered as it passes from glomerulus to Bowman’s capsule, lg. substances like proteins and blood cells don’t pass through capillary walls

117
Q

Reabsorption

A

Small solutes like water, nutrients, and salts leave proximal convoluted tubule and are reabsorbed by capillaries, leaving urine in tubule

118
Q

Peritubular capillaries

A

Surround tubules, reabsorb water, salt, and nutrients

119
Q

Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)

A

Hormone, Allows water to be reabsorbed from collecting duct, helps body stay hydrated, controls volume of urine

120
Q

Aldosterone

A

Regulates sodium reabsorption at distal convoluted tube

121
Q

Skin

A

Excretory organ that gets rid of excess water and salts, lgest organ, 2.5 million sweat glands, primary function to regulate body temp.

122
Q

Epidermis

A

Top layer of skin

123
Q

Dermis

A

Middle layer of skin, contains sweat glands, blood vessels, nerves, and sebaceous (oil) glands

124
Q

Subcutaneous tissue (hyperdermis)

A

Bottoms layer of skin, mostly fats

125
Q

Stratum corneum

A

Layer of dead cells that covers epidermis, form barrier against invading microorganisms

126
Q

Nerve net

A

Found in hydra, simplest nerve system

127
Q

Ganglia

A

Clumps of nerve cells in more developed organisms, like primitive brains

128
Q

Neurons

A

Specialized cells that make up brain, found in still more complex orgs, send and receive neural impulses

129
Q

Cell body

A

Contains nucleus and usual organelles

130
Q

Dendrite

A

Short extensions of the cell body that receive stimuli

131
Q

Axon

A

Long, slender extension that transmits an impulse from cell body to another neuron or organ

132
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Receive impulses from environment and bring them to body

133
Q

Motor neuron

A

Transmits impulse to muscles or glands to produce a response, muscle will contract, gland will secrete substance

134
Q

Interneuron

A

Links between sensory neurons and motor neurons, found in brain and spinal cord

135
Q

Threshold

A

Minimum amount of stimulus a neuron needs to respond

136
Q

Action potential

A

Change in the membrane potential that produces a nerve impulse

137
Q

All-or-none response

A

Neuron either fires all the way or not at all, not partway

138
Q

Depolarization

A

Interior of cell has “switched” polarity from negative to positive charge, sodium has entered neuron

139
Q

Repolarization

A

Potassium ions rush out of cell after sodium ions enter, cell is now more negative inside than outside

140
Q

Sodium-potassium pump

A

Reestablishes order of ions in nerve cells after repolarization (Na outside, K inside), three Na out for every two K in

141
Q

Refractory period

A

Period after action potential, Na levels reset, cell memb. Further from threshold, more difficult to initiate another action potential

142
Q

Axon bulb

A

End of the axon where neurotransmitters are released

143
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Chemical released by axon into synapse to send a message to the dendrites of the neuron next to it

144
Q

Synapse

A

Space between neurons

145
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Most important neurotransmitter, stimulates muscles to contract

146
Q

Acetylcholinesterase

A

Enzyme that breaks down extra acetylcholine left in synaptic cleft

147
Q

Norepinephrine and GABA

A

Other important neurotransmitters

148
Q

Schwann cells

A

Supporting cells that wrap around a neuron’s axon

149
Q

Myelin sheath

A

Insulates axon, formed from Schwann cells

150
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Exposed regions of axon, between myelin sheaths

151
Q

Salvatore conduction

A

Impulse jumps from node to node rather than going through domino effect, increases speed of signaling

152
Q

Central nervous system

A

Neurons in brain and spinal cord

153
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

All other neurons (not in brain/spinal cord)

154
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Part of peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary activities

155
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

Part of pns that controls involuntary activities

156
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

Controls fight or flight response, raises heart and respiration rates, causes blood vessels to constrict, increases glucose levels, produces goose bumps

157
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

Returns body to homeostasis after fight or flight response

158
Q

Homeostasis

A

State of normal activity/bodily function

159
Q

Cerebrum

A

Controls voluntary activities, relieves and interprets sensory info, lgest part of human brain

160
Q

Cerebellum

A

Coordinates muscle activity and refinement of mvmt

161
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Regulates homeostasis, secretes hormones, regulates pituitary gland

162
Q

Medulla

A

Controls involuntary activity like breathing, swallowing, heartbeat, and respiration

163
Q

Pons

A

Connects parts of the brain with each other, contains respiratory center

164
Q

Midbrain

A

Center for visual and auditory reflexes

165
Q

Thalamus

A

Main sensory relay center for conducting info b/t spinal cord and cerebrum

166
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

Outer gray matter, inner white matter

167
Q

Corpus callosum

A

Thick band of fibers or white matter, allow right and left brain to communicate

168
Q

Exoskeleton

A

Hard outer covering or shell that offers support for an organism

169
Q

Vertebrates

A

Animals with backbones

170
Q

Endoskeleton

A

Support structure inside body

171
Q

Cartilage

A

Found in embryonic stages of all vertebrates, later replaced by bone (except ear and nose), lacks nerves and blood vessels

172
Q

Bone

A

Connective tissue that contains nerves and blood vessels

173
Q

Collagen and calcium salts

A

Make up bones

174
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Bone-building cells

175
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Bone-breaking cells

176
Q

Joints

A

Hold together bones

177
Q

Ligaments

A

Holds joints together, connect bone to bone, tough connective tissue

178
Q

Tendons

A

Attach muscles to bones

179
Q

Skeletal muscle tissue

A

Control voluntary movements, multi-nucleated, have striations

180
Q

Striations

A

Stripes on skeletal muscle cells

181
Q

Muscle bundles

A

Make up muscles

182
Q

Muscle fascicles

A

Make up muscle bundles

183
Q

Muscle fiber cells

A

Make up muscle fascicles

184
Q

Myofibriles

A

Contractile fibrils in muscle fiber cells

185
Q

Sarcomeres

A

Contractile units, myofibrils subdivided by Z lines

186
Q

Actin

A

Thin filaments in sarcomeres

187
Q

Myosins

A

Thick filaments in sarcomeres

188
Q

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

Releases Ca+ during muscle contraction

189
Q

Smooth muscle cells

A

Long and tapered, one nucleus per cell, contain actin and myosin, but aren’t as organized as skeletal muscle cells, responsible for involuntary mvmts, usually slower to contract than skeletal muscle cells, found thruout body- walls of blood vessels, digestive tract, internal organs, etc.

190
Q

Cardiac muscle cells

A

Make up heart, striated, involuntary control, held together by intercalated discs, contractions spontaneous and automatic, gets signals from autonomic nervous system

191
Q

Intercalated discs

A

Special junctions that hold together cardiac muscles, provide direct electrical coupling between cells

192
Q

Hormones

A

Chemical messengers that are produced in one region of the body to act on target cells in another
Regulate growth, behavior, development, and reproduction

193
Q

Endocrine glands

A

Produce hormones

194
Q

Ecdysone

A

Promotes molting and metamorphosis of larva to butterfly

195
Q

Brain hormone, juvenile hormone

A

other insect hormones

196
Q

Pheromones

A

Help animals communicate with other members of their species and attract members of the opposite sex

197
Q

Target cells

A

The cells that hormones are designed to affect

198
Q

Negative feedback system

A

An excess of a hormone will signal the endocrine gland to temporarily shut down

199
Q

Pituitary gland

A

Master gland, releases hormones to other glands that stimulates them to release their hormones

200
Q

Anterior pituitary

A

Secretes 6 hormones: 3 growth, 3 reproductive systems

201
Q

Growth hormone

A

Stimulates growth thruout body, targets bones and muscles

202
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

A

Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

203
Q

Thyroid-stimulating hormone

A

Stimulates thyroid to secrete thyroxine

204
Q

Follicle-stimulating hormone

A

Stimulates follicle growth in females, spermatogenesis in males

205
Q

Luteinizing hormone

A

Causes release of ovum during menstrual cycle in females, testosterone production in males

206
Q

Prolactin

A

Stimulates mammary glands to produce milk

207
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Right above pituitary, works with pituitary, regulates anterior pituitary by secreting neurohormones that stimulate or inhibit its activity

208
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

Secretes two hormones

209
Q

Vasopressin

A

Regulates water intake by nephrons

210
Q

Oxytocin

A

Stimulates contraction of uterus and ducts of mammary glands

211
Q

Glucagon (alpha cell)

A

Produced in pancreas, target organs are liver and muscles, stimulates liver to convert glycogen into glucose and release glucose into blood (raise blood sugar level)

212
Q

Insulin (beta cell)

A

Produced in pancreas, target cells liver and muscles, stimulates removal of glucose from blood (lowering of blood sugar levels)

213
Q

Islets of Langerhans

A

Specific places where glucagon and insulin are produced in the pancreas

214
Q

Adrenal cortex

A

Releases glucorticoids and mineralocorticoids

215
Q

Glucorticoids

A

Target liver and promote release of glucose, help body adapt to stress

216
Q

Mineralocorticoids

A

Target kidney and promote retention of water

217
Q

Adrenal medulla

A

Emergency gland, secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine to give quick boost of energy for fight or flight response

218
Q

Thyroid gland

A

Located in neck, releases thyroxine which regulates metabolic rate in body tissues

219
Q

Hyperthyroidism

A

Individual regularly releases too much thyroxine, have fast metabolic rate, and tend to be irritable and nervous

220
Q

Hypothyroidism

A

Individual releases too little thyroxine, slow metabolic rate, sluggish and overweight

221
Q

Calcitonin

A

Hormone releases by thyroid that decreases Ca+ concentration in blood by concentrating free-floating calcium in bones

222
Q

Parathyroids

A

Four pea-shaped organs that rest on thyroid, secrete parathyroid hormone which raises blood calcium levels by releasing some calcium stored in bones

223
Q

Bone remodeling

A

Process of building up or breaking down bones to store and release calcium

224
Q

Estrogen and progesterone

A

Released by ovaries, regulate menstrual cycle

225
Q

Testosterone

A

Make hormone, promotes spermatogenesis

226
Q

Amine

A

Non lipid soluble hormone that can’t get into target cell simply by diffusion

227
Q

Cyclic AMP

A

Second messenger, triggers various enzymes

228
Q

Ova

A

Female gametes

229
Q

Follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone

A

Secreted by anterior pituitary, begin phase 1 of the menstrual cycle

230
Q

Follicular phase

A

Phase 1, FSH stimulates several follicles in ovaries to grow, when one gains lead and dominates others, others stop growing, estrogen released throughout phase to line uterus and then signal luteal surge (release of LH), ends with ovulation, lasts about 10 days

231
Q

Ovulation

A

release of follicle from ovary, triggered by LH

232
Q

Fallopian tube/oviduct

A

Tube which connects ovary to uterus, site of fertilization

233
Q

Uterine walls/endometrium

A

Sides of uterus, thicken in preparation for the implantation of the fertilized cell

234
Q

Corpus luteum

A

little yellow blob formed when follicle condenses after releasing ova, Latin for “yellow body”, continues to secrete estrogen, produces progesterone, shuts down after 13-15 days if fertilization and implantation have not occurred, which signals beginning of menstruation

235
Q

Progesterone

A

Hormone that readies body for pregnancy by promoting growth of glands and blood vessels in endometrium

236
Q

Menstruation/flow phase

A

Shedding of thickened tissue in endometrium that cannot be reabsorbed (thru blood), and is not needed since the organism is not pregnant, does not occur if organism is pregnant, cycle begins again once phase if finished

237
Q

Human chorionic gonadotropin

A

Helps maintain uterine lining, released if pregnancy occurs

238
Q

Puberty

A

Bodily changes to ready an organism for the reproductive stage of life, in males signaled by deepening voice and hair and muscle growth

239
Q

Sperm cells

A

Male gametes

240
Q

Seminiferous tubules

A

Main tissues of the testes, where spermatogonia undergo meiosis

241
Q

Epididymis

A

Where spermatids mature

242
Q

Interstitial cells

A

Supporting tissue, produce testosterone and other androgens

243
Q

Vas deferens

A

Sperm duct

244
Q

Seminal vessicles

A

Give fluids and fructose to sperm

245
Q

Prostate gland

A

Produces an alkaline fluid that neutralizes Catina’s acidic fluids

246
Q

Morphogenesis

A

Zygote changes shape and organization many times by going through a succession of stages

247
Q

Zygote

A

Egg fertilized by a sperm

248
Q

Fertilization

A

Forming of a zygote

249
Q

Cleavage

A

Series of rapid cell divisions undergone by newly formed zygote

250
Q

Morula

A

Solid cell ball formed by cleavage, no bigger than zygote

251
Q

Blastula

A

Second stage of morphogenesis, Blastocoel formed

252
Q

Blastocoel

A

Fluid-filled cavity formed when dividing cells push against each other, leaving an empty space

253
Q

Gastrulation

A

Zygote begins to change shape, form 3 germ layers: ecto-, meso-, and endoderm

254
Q

Organogenesis/neurula stage

A

Embryonic cells begin to truly differentiate, notochord and neural tube cells form

255
Q

Notochord

A

Rod-shaped structure running beneath the nerve cord

256
Q

Neural tube cells

A

Later develop into central nervous system

257
Q

Extraembryonic membranes

A

Membranes that some organisms have in addition to the primary germ layers, common in reptiles and birds

258
Q

Yolk sac

A

Provides food for the embryo, eem

259
Q

Amnion

A

Forms fluid-filled sac that protects embryo, eem

260
Q

Chorion

A

Outermost membrane, surrounds all other eems

261
Q

Allantois

A

Membrane involved in gas exchange, stores uric acid, eem

262
Q

Embryo/fetus

A

“Unborn” organism that develops from the zygote

263
Q

Placenta

A

Outgrowth of eem, provides fetus with nutrients and oxygen, gets rid of its waste

264
Q

Umbilical cord

A

Outgrowth of eem, connects fetus with placenta

265
Q

Induction

A

Some tissues determining the fate of other tissues in embryonic development

266
Q

Organizers

A

Cells that release morphogens to regulate fate of other tissues

267
Q

Morphogens

A

Chemical substances released to control a particular tissue during embryonic development

268
Q

Homeotic genes

A

Control development of embryo

269
Q

Homeobox genes

A

Short, nearly identical DNA sequences that code for proteins that bind to the DNA of embryonic cells to specialize their structures

270
Q

Differentiation

A

Process by which cells become specialized

271
Q

Hox genes

A

Specify position of body parts during embryonic development

272
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death

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