Part 8: Animal Structure and Function Flashcards
0
Q
Extracellular digestion
A
Food is digested in a gastrovascular cavity
1
Q
Intracellular digestion
A
Digestion occurs within food vacuoles, system used by simple organisms
2
Q
Mouth
A
First stop of digestive process, oral cavity, site of the beginning of mechanical and chemical digestion
3
Q
Mastication
A
Mechanical digestion, chewing, softening, breaking up of food
4
Q
Saliva
A
Secreted by salivary glands, contains enzyme salivary amylase, begins chemical breakdown of starch into maltose
5
Q
Bolus
A
Chewed food, shaped like a ball
6
Q
Pharynx
A
Close to/part of? Esophagus
8
Q
Peristalsis
A
Wavelike motion that food moves through the esophagus in, push food toward stomach
10
Q
Stomach
A
Thick, muscular sac that temporarily stores ingested food, partially digests proteins, and kills bacteria
11
Q
Gastric juices
A
Secreted by stomach, contain digestive enzymes (pepsin) and HCl
12
Q
Chyme
A
Partially digested food ready to enter small intestine
13
Q
Pyloric sphincter
A
Chyme moves through it to enter duodenum (first part of sm int)
14
Q
Pancreas
A
Secretes enzymes into sm int
15
Q
Trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic lipase, and pancreatic amylase
A
Enzymes secreted by pancreas
16
Q
Pancreatic duct
A
How the enzymes are secreted into the sm int
17
Q
Bile
A
In sm int, emulsifier-mechanically breaks up fats into smaller fat droplets
Made in liver, stored in gall bladder
18
Q
Villi and microvilli
A
Tiny, finger like projections of the intestine that absorb broken down food
19
Q
Lacteals
A
Lymph vessels in the villus that absorb fatty acids
20
Q
Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin
A
Hormones involved in the digestive system
21
Q
Large intestine
A
Reabsorbs water and salts
22
Q
Feces
A
Leftover undigested food
23
Q
Rectum
A
Second to last stop, holding place for feces
24
Q
Anus
A
Where feces is released
25
Q
Tracheae
A
Special breatig tubes in complex organisms
26
Spiracles
Tiny openings in the tracheae that allow air to enter
27
Lungs and gills
Two main breathing systems of vertebrates
28
Larynx
Voice box
29
Epiglottis
Special flap that covers trachea when swallowing to prevent food from entering trachea
30
Left and right bronchus
Two tubes that service the lungs
31
Bronchioles
Smaller tubes in the lungs
32
Alveolus
Tiny air sad at the end of each bronchiole, enlarge surface area of lungs
33
Capillary
Blood vessel close to the alveolus, O and CO2 diffuse from/to alveolus when breathing
34
Hemoglobin
Iron containing protein found in blood cells that carries O around body
35
Plasma
Fluid of blood
36
Bicarbonate ions
HCO3-
| CO2 plus water, what most CO2 in the body is turned into
37
Inspiration
Process of taking in oxygen
38
Expiration
Process of breathing out CO2
39
Chemoreceptors
Control respiration rate
40
Diaphragm
Muscle that regulates breathing
43
Esophagus
Second part of digestive tract, throat, gateway to stomach
45
Crop
Third stop on some organisms' digestive tract, storage organ
46
Open circulatory system
Blood is carried by open-ended vessels that spill blood into the body cavity
In Arthropods the cavity is called the sinuses
47
Closed circulatory system
Blood flows continuously through a network of blood vessels
48
Right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle
Four chambers of the heart, in the order of blood flow through heart
49
Systematic circulation
Blood leaves heart, travels through body, and returns to heart
50
Aortic semilunar valve
How blood leaves the heart, end of left ventricle
51
Aorta
Largest artery in body
52
Arteries
Branches of the aorta, carry blood away from heart
53
Arterioles
Small arteries
54
Capillaries
Smallest arteries, blood cells must go through single file, intermingle with tissues to exchange nutrients, gases and wastes
55
Deoxygenated
Without oxygen, specifically referring to blood cells
56
Venules
Small veins
57
Veins
Blood vessels that carry blood to the heart, have valves that prevent the backward flow of blood
58
Superior vena cava and inferior vena cava
Two blood vessels that carry blood to right atrium, where it enters the heart
59
Right atrioventricular valve, tricuspid
How blood gets from right atrium to right ventricle
60
Pulmonary circulation
Blood leaving right ventricle goes to lungs to be oxygenated, then returns to left atrium
61
Pulmonary semilunar valve
How blood leaves the right ventricle, feeds to pulmonary artery
62
Pulmonary artery
Large artery between heart and lungs, branches into right and left to serve both lungs
63
Oxygenated
Having oxygen, with respect to blood
64
Pulmonary veins
Lungs to heart blood vessel
65
Left atrioventricular valve, bicuspid, or mitral valve
How blood gets from left atrium to left ventricle
66
Thermoregulation
Maintenance of a fairly stable body temperature regardless of external conditions
67
Endotherms
Animals that regulate their internal body temperatures
68
Counter current exchange
Arteries with warm blood next to veins with cold blood, one warms the other
69
Ectotherms
Animals that gain and lose heat by way of environment
70
Sinoatrial node
Natural pacemaker, tissues in right atrium that start the beat of the heart
71
Atrioventricular node
First stop for the impulse given by SA node
72
Bundle of His, Purkinje fibers
Last stops of heartbeat impulse
73
Systole
Part of the cycle in which contraction occurs
74
Diastole
Part of the cycle in which relaxation occurs
75
Red blood cells, erythrocytes
Oxygen-carrying cells, contain hemoglobin, lack nucleus
76
White blood cells, leukocytes
Fight infection, protect body from foreign organisms
77
Platelets
Cell fragments involved in blood clotting
78
Bone marrow
Site of blood cell synthesis, center of bones
79
A, B, AB, O
Four blood groups
O = universal donor
AB= universal recipient
80
Antibodies
Immune substances that will bind and destroy foreign blood (if the wrong type)
81
Rh factors
Antigens found on red blood cells
| Rh+ has them, Rh- doesn't
82
Lymphatic system
Made up of a network of vessels that conduct lymph, plays important role in fluid homeostasis
Collects, filters, and returns fluid to blood by contraction of adjacent muscles, fights infection, removes excess fluid from body tissue
83
Lymph
Clear, watery fluid formed from interstitial fluid
84
Lymph node
Mass of tissue found along he course of a lymph vessel, contains many lymphocytes, swell when fighting an infection
85
Lymphocytes
Important in fighting infection, multiply rapidly when in contact with an antigen
86
Antigen
Foreign substance recognized by immune system
87
Immune system
One of the body's defense systems, triggered by antigens
88
Phagocytes
Engulf antigens
89
Complement proteins
Lyse cell wall of antigens
90
Interferons
Inhibit viral replication, activate surrounding cells that have antiviral actions
91
Inflammatory response
Series of events in response to antigen invasion of physical injury
92
Pathogen
Disease-causing agent
93
Cell-mediated immunity
Involves T-cells
94
Major histocompatibility complex
Cell markers that distinguish between self and foreign cells
95
Memory T-cells
Recognize pathogens they have encountered before
96
Helper T-cells
Activate B-lymphocytes and other T-cells in responding to the infected cells
97
Cytotoxic T-cells
Recognizes and kill infected cells
98
AIDS
Disease from HIV that interferes with immune system
99
T-lymphocytes
Fight infection
100
B-lymphocytes
Produce antibodies
101
Nitrogenous wastes
Products containing nitrogen that are not needed by the body
102
Ammonia
NH3, byproduct of protein decomp. By body
103
Uric acid and urea
Some animals convert ammonia to one of them so they are not harmed by the ammonia
104
Nephridia and Malpighian tubes
Excretory organs in invertebrates
105
Kidney
Major organ that regulates excretion in humans
106
Nephrons
Functional units of the kidney
| Consists of the Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tube, and collecting duct
107
Renal cortex
Outer-most section of kidney, contains Bowman's capsule and proximal convoluted tubules
108
Renal medulla
Inner section of kidney, contains loop of Henle and distal convoluted tubules
109
Renal artery
Blood vessel that leads to kidney and branches into aterioles, then timing capillaries
110
Glomerulus
Ball of capillaries that "sits" within a Bowman's capsule, filters blood, forces plasma from capillaries into Bowman's capsule
111
Filtrate
Plasma that is forced into the Bowman's capsule
112
Urine
Filtrate modified in the collecting duct
113
Ureters
Tube that carries urine from kidney to bladder
114
Bladder
Sad that holds urine until the body can release it
115
Urethra
Tube from bladder to outside of body
116
Filtration
Blood is filtered as it passes from glomerulus to Bowman's capsule, lg. substances like proteins and blood cells don't pass through capillary walls
117
Reabsorption
Small solutes like water, nutrients, and salts leave proximal convoluted tubule and are reabsorbed by capillaries, leaving urine in tubule
118
Peritubular capillaries
Surround tubules, reabsorb water, salt, and nutrients
119
Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)
Hormone, Allows water to be reabsorbed from collecting duct, helps body stay hydrated, controls volume of urine
120
Aldosterone
Regulates sodium reabsorption at distal convoluted tube
121
Skin
Excretory organ that gets rid of excess water and salts, lgest organ, 2.5 million sweat glands, primary function to regulate body temp.
122
Epidermis
Top layer of skin
123
Dermis
Middle layer of skin, contains sweat glands, blood vessels, nerves, and sebaceous (oil) glands
124
Subcutaneous tissue (hyperdermis)
Bottoms layer of skin, mostly fats
125
Stratum corneum
Layer of dead cells that covers epidermis, form barrier against invading microorganisms
126
Nerve net
Found in hydra, simplest nerve system
127
Ganglia
Clumps of nerve cells in more developed organisms, like primitive brains
128
Neurons
Specialized cells that make up brain, found in still more complex orgs, send and receive neural impulses
129
Cell body
Contains nucleus and usual organelles
130
Dendrite
Short extensions of the cell body that receive stimuli
131
Axon
Long, slender extension that transmits an impulse from cell body to another neuron or organ
132
Sensory neurons
Receive impulses from environment and bring them to body
133
Motor neuron
Transmits impulse to muscles or glands to produce a response, muscle will contract, gland will secrete substance
134
Interneuron
Links between sensory neurons and motor neurons, found in brain and spinal cord
135
Threshold
Minimum amount of stimulus a neuron needs to respond
136
Action potential
Change in the membrane potential that produces a nerve impulse
137
All-or-none response
Neuron either fires all the way or not at all, not partway
138
Depolarization
Interior of cell has "switched" polarity from negative to positive charge, sodium has entered neuron
139
Repolarization
Potassium ions rush out of cell after sodium ions enter, cell is now more negative inside than outside
140
Sodium-potassium pump
Reestablishes order of ions in nerve cells after repolarization (Na outside, K inside), three Na out for every two K in
141
Refractory period
Period after action potential, Na levels reset, cell memb. Further from threshold, more difficult to initiate another action potential
142
Axon bulb
End of the axon where neurotransmitters are released
143
Neurotransmitter
Chemical released by axon into synapse to send a message to the dendrites of the neuron next to it
144
Synapse
Space between neurons
145
Acetylcholine
Most important neurotransmitter, stimulates muscles to contract
146
Acetylcholinesterase
Enzyme that breaks down extra acetylcholine left in synaptic cleft
147
Norepinephrine and GABA
Other important neurotransmitters
148
Schwann cells
Supporting cells that wrap around a neuron's axon
149
Myelin sheath
Insulates axon, formed from Schwann cells
150
Nodes of Ranvier
Exposed regions of axon, between myelin sheaths
151
Salvatore conduction
Impulse jumps from node to node rather than going through domino effect, increases speed of signaling
152
Central nervous system
Neurons in brain and spinal cord
153
Peripheral nervous system
All other neurons (not in brain/spinal cord)
154
Somatic nervous system
Part of peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary activities
155
Autonomic nervous system
Part of pns that controls involuntary activities
156
Sympathetic nervous system
Controls fight or flight response, raises heart and respiration rates, causes blood vessels to constrict, increases glucose levels, produces goose bumps
157
Parasympathetic nervous system
Returns body to homeostasis after fight or flight response
158
Homeostasis
State of normal activity/bodily function
159
Cerebrum
Controls voluntary activities, relieves and interprets sensory info, lgest part of human brain
160
Cerebellum
Coordinates muscle activity and refinement of mvmt
161
Hypothalamus
Regulates homeostasis, secretes hormones, regulates pituitary gland
162
Medulla
Controls involuntary activity like breathing, swallowing, heartbeat, and respiration
163
Pons
Connects parts of the brain with each other, contains respiratory center
164
Midbrain
Center for visual and auditory reflexes
165
Thalamus
Main sensory relay center for conducting info b/t spinal cord and cerebrum
166
Cerebral cortex
Outer gray matter, inner white matter
167
Corpus callosum
Thick band of fibers or white matter, allow right and left brain to communicate
168
Exoskeleton
Hard outer covering or shell that offers support for an organism
169
Vertebrates
Animals with backbones
170
Endoskeleton
Support structure inside body
171
Cartilage
Found in embryonic stages of all vertebrates, later replaced by bone (except ear and nose), lacks nerves and blood vessels
172
Bone
Connective tissue that contains nerves and blood vessels
173
Collagen and calcium salts
Make up bones
174
Osteoblasts
Bone-building cells
175
Osteoclasts
Bone-breaking cells
176
Joints
Hold together bones
177
Ligaments
Holds joints together, connect bone to bone, tough connective tissue
178
Tendons
Attach muscles to bones
179
Skeletal muscle tissue
Control voluntary movements, multi-nucleated, have striations
180
Striations
Stripes on skeletal muscle cells
181
Muscle bundles
Make up muscles
182
Muscle fascicles
Make up muscle bundles
183
Muscle fiber cells
Make up muscle fascicles
184
Myofibriles
Contractile fibrils in muscle fiber cells
185
Sarcomeres
Contractile units, myofibrils subdivided by Z lines
186
Actin
Thin filaments in sarcomeres
187
Myosins
Thick filaments in sarcomeres
188
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Releases Ca+ during muscle contraction
189
Smooth muscle cells
Long and tapered, one nucleus per cell, contain actin and myosin, but aren't as organized as skeletal muscle cells, responsible for involuntary mvmts, usually slower to contract than skeletal muscle cells, found thruout body- walls of blood vessels, digestive tract, internal organs, etc.
190
Cardiac muscle cells
Make up heart, striated, involuntary control, held together by intercalated discs, contractions spontaneous and automatic, gets signals from autonomic nervous system
191
Intercalated discs
Special junctions that hold together cardiac muscles, provide direct electrical coupling between cells
192
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are produced in one region of the body to act on target cells in another
Regulate growth, behavior, development, and reproduction
193
Endocrine glands
Produce hormones
194
Ecdysone
Promotes molting and metamorphosis of larva to butterfly
195
Brain hormone, juvenile hormone
other insect hormones
196
Pheromones
Help animals communicate with other members of their species and attract members of the opposite sex
197
Target cells
The cells that hormones are designed to affect
198
Negative feedback system
An excess of a hormone will signal the endocrine gland to temporarily shut down
199
Pituitary gland
Master gland, releases hormones to other glands that stimulates them to release their hormones
200
Anterior pituitary
Secretes 6 hormones: 3 growth, 3 reproductive systems
201
Growth hormone
Stimulates growth thruout body, targets bones and muscles
202
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
203
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Stimulates thyroid to secrete thyroxine
204
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Stimulates follicle growth in females, spermatogenesis in males
205
Luteinizing hormone
Causes release of ovum during menstrual cycle in females, testosterone production in males
206
Prolactin
Stimulates mammary glands to produce milk
207
Hypothalamus
Right above pituitary, works with pituitary, regulates anterior pituitary by secreting neurohormones that stimulate or inhibit its activity
208
Posterior pituitary
Secretes two hormones
209
Vasopressin
Regulates water intake by nephrons
210
Oxytocin
Stimulates contraction of uterus and ducts of mammary glands
211
Glucagon (alpha cell)
Produced in pancreas, target organs are liver and muscles, stimulates liver to convert glycogen into glucose and release glucose into blood (raise blood sugar level)
212
Insulin (beta cell)
Produced in pancreas, target cells liver and muscles, stimulates removal of glucose from blood (lowering of blood sugar levels)
213
Islets of Langerhans
Specific places where glucagon and insulin are produced in the pancreas
214
Adrenal cortex
Releases glucorticoids and mineralocorticoids
215
Glucorticoids
Target liver and promote release of glucose, help body adapt to stress
216
Mineralocorticoids
Target kidney and promote retention of water
217
Adrenal medulla
Emergency gland, secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine to give quick boost of energy for fight or flight response
218
Thyroid gland
Located in neck, releases thyroxine which regulates metabolic rate in body tissues
219
Hyperthyroidism
Individual regularly releases too much thyroxine, have fast metabolic rate, and tend to be irritable and nervous
220
Hypothyroidism
Individual releases too little thyroxine, slow metabolic rate, sluggish and overweight
221
Calcitonin
Hormone releases by thyroid that decreases Ca+ concentration in blood by concentrating free-floating calcium in bones
222
Parathyroids
Four pea-shaped organs that rest on thyroid, secrete parathyroid hormone which raises blood calcium levels by releasing some calcium stored in bones
223
Bone remodeling
Process of building up or breaking down bones to store and release calcium
224
Estrogen and progesterone
Released by ovaries, regulate menstrual cycle
225
Testosterone
Make hormone, promotes spermatogenesis
226
Amine
Non lipid soluble hormone that can't get into target cell simply by diffusion
227
Cyclic AMP
Second messenger, triggers various enzymes
228
Ova
Female gametes
229
Follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone
Secreted by anterior pituitary, begin phase 1 of the menstrual cycle
230
Follicular phase
Phase 1, FSH stimulates several follicles in ovaries to grow, when one gains lead and dominates others, others stop growing, estrogen released throughout phase to line uterus and then signal luteal surge (release of LH), ends with ovulation, lasts about 10 days
231
Ovulation
release of follicle from ovary, triggered by LH
232
Fallopian tube/oviduct
Tube which connects ovary to uterus, site of fertilization
233
Uterine walls/endometrium
Sides of uterus, thicken in preparation for the implantation of the fertilized cell
234
Corpus luteum
little yellow blob formed when follicle condenses after releasing ova, Latin for "yellow body", continues to secrete estrogen, produces progesterone, shuts down after 13-15 days if fertilization and implantation have not occurred, which signals beginning of menstruation
235
Progesterone
Hormone that readies body for pregnancy by promoting growth of glands and blood vessels in endometrium
236
Menstruation/flow phase
Shedding of thickened tissue in endometrium that cannot be reabsorbed (thru blood), and is not needed since the organism is not pregnant, does not occur if organism is pregnant, cycle begins again once phase if finished
237
Human chorionic gonadotropin
Helps maintain uterine lining, released if pregnancy occurs
238
Puberty
Bodily changes to ready an organism for the reproductive stage of life, in males signaled by deepening voice and hair and muscle growth
239
Sperm cells
Male gametes
240
Seminiferous tubules
Main tissues of the testes, where spermatogonia undergo meiosis
241
Epididymis
Where spermatids mature
242
Interstitial cells
Supporting tissue, produce testosterone and other androgens
243
Vas deferens
Sperm duct
244
Seminal vessicles
Give fluids and fructose to sperm
245
Prostate gland
Produces an alkaline fluid that neutralizes Catina's acidic fluids
246
Morphogenesis
Zygote changes shape and organization many times by going through a succession of stages
247
Zygote
Egg fertilized by a sperm
248
Fertilization
Forming of a zygote
249
Cleavage
Series of rapid cell divisions undergone by newly formed zygote
250
Morula
Solid cell ball formed by cleavage, no bigger than zygote
251
Blastula
Second stage of morphogenesis, Blastocoel formed
252
Blastocoel
Fluid-filled cavity formed when dividing cells push against each other, leaving an empty space
253
Gastrulation
Zygote begins to change shape, form 3 germ layers: ecto-, meso-, and endoderm
254
Organogenesis/neurula stage
Embryonic cells begin to truly differentiate, notochord and neural tube cells form
255
Notochord
Rod-shaped structure running beneath the nerve cord
256
Neural tube cells
Later develop into central nervous system
257
Extraembryonic membranes
Membranes that some organisms have in addition to the primary germ layers, common in reptiles and birds
258
Yolk sac
Provides food for the embryo, eem
259
Amnion
Forms fluid-filled sac that protects embryo, eem
260
Chorion
Outermost membrane, surrounds all other eems
261
Allantois
Membrane involved in gas exchange, stores uric acid, eem
262
Embryo/fetus
"Unborn" organism that develops from the zygote
263
Placenta
Outgrowth of eem, provides fetus with nutrients and oxygen, gets rid of its waste
264
Umbilical cord
Outgrowth of eem, connects fetus with placenta
265
Induction
Some tissues determining the fate of other tissues in embryonic development
266
Organizers
Cells that release morphogens to regulate fate of other tissues
267
Morphogens
Chemical substances released to control a particular tissue during embryonic development
268
Homeotic genes
Control development of embryo
269
Homeobox genes
Short, nearly identical DNA sequences that code for proteins that bind to the DNA of embryonic cells to specialize their structures
270
Differentiation
Process by which cells become specialized
271
Hox genes
Specify position of body parts during embryonic development
272
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
