Paper 3 - Forests Under Threats Flashcards
what is the highest layer of the tropical rainforest
emergent layer
- made of giant trees which stick up above the forest canopy -> trees receive most light, rain and wind
what is the second highest layer of the tropical rainforest
canopy layer
- trees reach 50m, layers uneven with breaks in treetops allowing light through to the middle canopy
What is the second lowest layer of the tropical rainforest?
Undercanopy layer
- densest layer -> only 2% of sunlight penetrates the middle canopy
What’s the lowest layer of the tropical rainforest?
shrub layer
- supports few plants because the thick canopy of branches above cuts out the light -> consequently sparsely populated with tiny seedlings and shoots
adaptation
The way a plant or animal changes its character characteristics to help it survive or live in its environment
adaptation of drip tips
- have waxy leaves with drip tips -> these shed water quickly to prevent the leaves from rotting
Adaptation of buttress roots
The stretch up from the ground to help to anchor the tree to the ground
Adaptation of lianas
woody vines that start at ground level and use trees to climb up to the canopy where they spread from tree to tree to get as much light as possible.
adaptation of epiphytes
Grow upon other plants and evolved to get all nutrients from water and air rather than the soil
Adaptation of sloths
- Huge claws allows sloths to hang upside down in the branches
- The fur grows away from their feet to help shed rain when they’re upside down
- Green algae growing in their fur helps to camouflage them from predators
Adaptation of lemurs and monkeys
- Have evolved to live in the canopy layer where most of the food is
- Long tails used for balance
- Strong claws to grip trees and branches
Adaptation of Jaguars/tigers/leopards
- all have camouflaged fur
- The dark and light fur patches blend in with the shade and sunlight on the forest floor
Adaptation of Rainforest birds
- very loud calls because it’s easier to hear a mare than see them in the dense canopy
- Parrots and toucans have powerful beaks to break open nuts
input
Something that is put into the system
output
Something that is produced by a system
store
Where something is kept
flow
How something moves from one store to another
Recycling
How material/ energy is used in the system
What are the three main stores of a nutrient cycle?
- biomass
- soil
- litter
In a nutrient cycle, what shows how nutrients move between the stores
nutrient transfers
Where does the soil store receive and give out nutrients from?
receive: Weathering (the chemical breakdown rocks adds nutrients to the soil) and decay (litter decomposes returning nutrients to the soil)
Give out: leaching (nutrients are washed out of the soil as water moves through)
Where does the litter store receive and give out nutrients from?
receive: fallout (dead plants and animals become litter on the soil surface) and precipitation (rainfall adds nutrients)
Give out: run-off (water washes litter away, removing nutrients) and decay (litter decomposes returning nutrients to the soil)
Where does the biomass store receive and give out nutrients from?
Receive: Growth/ uptake (as plant grow, they take nutrients from the soil)
give out: fallout (dead plants and animals become litter on the soil surface)
Normal nutrient cycle
Tropical rainforest nutrient cycle
Differences between regular nutrient cycle and the tropical nutrient cycle
- litter store is smaller in TRF -> climate allows for more decomposition and therefore litter transfers into soil
- Growth transfer bigger in TRF -> lots of rain and sun favours plant grow
- Bleaching output is bigger in TRF -> more rain causes more nutrients to be washed out of the soil
Food web
Chain of name and arrows showing what animals feed on
Producers
Organisms - either a green plant or bacterium which is part of the first level of a food chain
Primary consumer
Eat plants exclusively and are all herbivores.
Secondary consumers
Eat primary consumers. Can be classified into one of two groups. Carnivores (eat meat), Omnivores (eat meat and plants)
Tertiary consumers
A carnivore at the topmost level in a food chain that feeds on other carnivores; an animal that feeds only on secondary consumers
describe the taiga
- largest biome -> stretches across N parts of Asia and America
- climate is known as subarctic climate
- has long, very cold winters, temperatures drop as low as -40°C.
- Summers are short, average temperatures rarely above 16°C.
- Snow remains on the ground for many months of the year
- average precipitation is low, less than 500mm per year.
black, brown and grizzly bear adaptations to live in the taiga
- hibernate as food is hard to find
- Sharp teeth to eat prey
- Strong sense of smell to sniff food
lynx adaptations to live in the taiga
- thick fur to retain body heat and provide waterproofing
- Large feet to help not sink into snow
- Strong legs to pounce on prey
hare adaptations to live in the taiga
- White fur in the winter, brown fur in summer to camouflage to protect from predators
coniferous (cone-shaped) tree adaptation to live in the taiga
- flexible branches -> easy to shed snow so branches don’t break off
leaves tree adaptation to live in the taiga
narrow/waxy needles as leaves to limit water loss during dry periods and prevent damage from frost and decay of leaves
tree roots adaptation to live in the taiga
wide, shallow roots to support tree but avoid frozen ground as there won’t be a lot of water there
birds species in the taiga
300 species of birds live in Taiga in the summer; however another 270 species migrate away for winter because of cold and lack of food
how has an evergreen tree adapted to live in the taiga
- Cone shape to shed snow
- Tall and narrow to form a dense canopy
- Branches are flexible to ensure they do not break under the weight of the snow
- Thick pine needles that drop to the forest floor are acidic to stop other plants growing
- Needle leaves are waxy which prevents forest damage
- Seeds are protected in woody cones
- Only ferns, mosses and lichens grow on the forest floor due to a lack of light
- Tree roots are shallow
taiga nutrient cycle (difference between TRF)
- small biomass store because trees grow for only a few months of the year due to colder climate and smaller growing season
- smaller weathering transfer due to lack of precipitation and cold temperatures which slow down the rate of chemical weathering
- larger litter store cuz pine needles decay slowly in cold temperatures and release nutrients slowly
Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
a measure of how much new plant and animal growth or biomass is added to a biome each year
-> productivity is greatest where there is plenty of sunlight, high temperature and precipitation
-> biomes with cold/dry season have lower productivity
direct threat
clear link between one thing happening and the damage being caused to something else -> e.g. deliberately cutting down trees
indirect threat
caused by global warming/pollution
main direct threats to the TRF - deforestation
- large scale farming (cattle ranching) - brings money into the country and provides food and jobs for the countries growing population
- small scale farming (crops) - provides food for rainforest communities
- HEP - needed to produce electricity and helps to control flooding
- raw materials - tropical hardwoods can be sold for a good price abroad
- roads - divide up parts of the forest and can cut off connections between different systems
- mineral deposits - amazon includes iron ore, gold, silver and diamond
why are direct threats happening to the TRF
- poverty - local people cut down small areas of forest for land to farm as they have no other way of making a living
- debt - counties are driven to cut down forests, export timber or grow cash crops to pay off debts
- economic development - forest is sacrificed in place of roads, expanding cities
- demand for resources - tropical forests contain raw materials - to get these materials, forests have to be destroyed
indirect threats to TRF - global warming, what can it lead to?
- species extinction
- growing seasons changing
- changes in bird migration
indirect threats to TRF - climate stress, what can it lead to?
- interruption to the nutrient cycle
- plants unable to grow
- increase in forest fires
what has caused the indirect threat - global warming?
rising populations and resource consumption add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere
what impact would a 1 degree rise in temperature have on species and biomes - global warming
- 10% of land species face extinction
- alpine, mountain and tundra biomes shrink as temperatures rise
what impact would a 3 degree rise in temperature have on species and biomes - global warming
- 20-50% of land species face extinction
- forest biomes are stressed by drought -> fire risk increases on grassland
- pests and diseases thrive
- flooding causes loss of coastal mangroves
in what years did the amazon rainforest experience drought - climate stress?
2005 & 2010
what impact did the drought have on carbon dioxide levels - climate stress?
amazon switched from absorbing to emitting CO2 because plants stopped growing
what are further problems associated with droughts in the TRF - climate stress?
- forest fires broke out, burning trees & litter, released CO2
- put ecosystems under stress by: causing leaves in canopy to die, reducing food supply and affecting food webs
why the taiga biome is deforested at a larger % than the TRF?
- biome is vast
- much of the taiga is isolated and ‘out of sight’ in the frozen northern latitudes
- a few ‘cute and cuddly’ species und threat that people get excited about
what is the case study’s for the taiga biome?
- Tar Sands, Canada
- James Bay, HEP project
what is the reason for exploitation and what is Tar Sands? (CASE STUDY)
- tar sands is a place of mining and is a mixture of fossil fuel oil and sediment that can be mined and heated to separate the oil -> extracted by either deforesting the taiga and strip mining the surface or by streaming out tar so it melts and can be collected
what is the reason for exploitation and what is the James Bay, HEP Project? (CASE STUDY)
- water stored behind dams is used to generate HEP
- build between 1973 and 2012 and cost over US$20 billion
- worlds largest HEP plants
What is the impact on both the environment and social aspects? (Tar Sands - CASE STUDY)
- destroys forest and produces toxic waste
- mining uses 2-4 tonnes of water for every tonne of oil produced
What is the impact on both the environment and social aspects? (HEP project - CASE STUDY)
- 11000km2 of taiga forest has been flooded during construction
- mercury (a poison) was released as a flooded forest decade in the reservoirs, polluting the the Rupert and La Grande Rivers, getting into the food web via fish, eventually into the local Cree Indian population
- The road dams, reservoirs and electricity pylons have disrupted the migration route
what are the 3 indirect threats to the Taiga
- wildfires
- acid rain
- pests
What are the causes of wildfires in the Taiga
- summers can be hot and sometimes dry
- coniferous trees have sticky resin (sap in the trees) which burns easily
- summer storms generate lighting strikes
- pine needles which litter the floor is perfect tinder for wildfires to start
What are the negative impacts of wildfires in the Taiga?
- fire-tolerant species begin to dominate the biome
- animals which live on trees which are not fire tolerant decline and begin to migrate reducing biodiversity
- consistent wildfires will reduce biodiversity snd stop regeneration of trees
What are the positive impacts of wildfires in the Taiga?
- some types of pine cones release seeds when burned
- aspen and birch trees sprout from burned stumps
what is the process of acid rain
- fossil fuels are burnt in power stations to make energy -> this releases sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
- Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water and oxygen to form acids and fall as acid precipitation
what is the impact of acid rain to the Taiga?
- when acid rain falls into lakes and soils, it kills insects and their eggs which reduces the food supply for migrating birds in the summer
- It also kills the soil which means less nutrients enter the soil which makes plants less resistant to forest fires and disease
what are the 3 consequences of an increase in pests in the Taiga?
- reduce commercial value of the forest, preventing it being sold as timber
- Dramatically alter the ecosystem - killing tree species alters the food web
- change the landscape from dense forest to more open landscape with fewer trees
Why are pests not usually a problem in the Taiga?
the cold winters usually kill them off and their larvae (eggs)
how has the mountain line beetle affected the Taiga?
They destroyed 16 million hectares of Lodgepole pine forest in Canada, the beetles introduced a fungus to the tree and then the fungus and feeding beetle larvae cut off the flow of water inside the tree and it dies
What are the two CASE STUDIES to protect the rainforest
- CITIES (the Convention on International Trade In Endangered Species) -> bans cross-border trade in certain species
- REDD – Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation -> a United Nations project whose purpose it is to stop deforestation
CITIES positives
- It has very large international influence - 181 countries have signed up to CITES
- CITES targets the right problem - most trade in illegal species is international
- Roughly 5,600 species of animals and 30,000 species of plants are protected by CITES against over-exploitation through international trade
- Extremely harsh penalties exist for poaching endangered animals or being caught smuggling them
- Protects the biodiversity of the TRF which local people are dependent on for basic survival
- Illegal trade in TRF products is increasing, not decreasing because demand remains high so it is worth it
CITIES negatives
- Lots of money is required to check that all countries should be following the rules to protect against ti endangered species
- Illegal trade in TRF products is increasing, not decreasing because demand remains high so it is worth it
- CITES cannot monitor 181 countries at one time
- CITES makes it harder and means a longer time to get permits for captive breed animals than wild animals which could encourage more poaching
REDD positives
- makes poor forest management such as indiscriminate unenforced logging, less profitable than the sustainable alternative
- involves payments to developing countries that will prevent deforestation or degradation that would otherwise have taken place
- Payments go towards actions that enable developing countries to conserve or sustainably use their forests e.g. More appropriate harvesting of wood
- Teaches local people new skills e.g. to monitor rainforests -> long-term educational benefit
- Funding rewards good forest management in developing countries
- Helps give local people more control
- It can be cheap in comparison to other activities e.g. Carbon capture or renewable energy however developing countries can’t afford these activities so deforestation mainly happens in developing countries
- Stopping forest degradation means there is more carbon capture
- preventing deforestation means that biodiversity increases
REDD negatives
- stopping cattle ranches and soya farming could reduce the amount of food causing rising food prices
- some people argue that it allows developed counties to dodge responsibilities to cut carbon dioxide emissions
- REDD payments could weaken land and resource rights for forest-dependent communities
- requires that greenhouse gas emissions are monitored to show impact which can be expensive
- lots of political challenges, e.g. disagreement between countries
- they can cause leakage whereby conservation in one area simply shifts deforestation to another
About Juma Sustainable Forest Reserve - people + biodiversity (CASE STUDY)
- 35 villages
- 430 different bird species
- 21 different primate species
- 2400 people
How is Juma Sustainable Forest Reserve funded (CASE STUDY)
The money to pay for conservations is donated by the TNC Marriott, Brazilian bank Bradesco, Coca-Cola Brazil, and the regional government of Amazonas state
How does Juma Sustainable Forest Reserve stop local people deforesting the area (CASE STUDY)
families that live in Juma SFR are paid $30 per month if they agree not to cut down the area -> gives people alternate incomes they don’t need to cut down the forest
-> this is called the ‘Bolsa Floresta’ programme
positives of the Juma SFR
- without protection, 60% of the Juma forest would be lost by 2050
- it protects a large enough area to support carnivores and large primates
- ecotourism is being developed in the area to provide extra income for families within Juma
- incomes have been written by the ‘Bolsa Floresta’ scheme
- funding has built 7 schools, trainedpeople in sustainable farming and provided a cleaner source of water and energy
negatives of the Juma SFR
- local people have ‘ signed away’ their rights to use materials within the forest reserve
- large area is harder to police/monitor therefore illegal logging can still take place
- Juma SFR relies on donations and if they stop the project itself might stop
- money for families is less than $1 per day whereas the reserve manager earns $25,000 per year
What does sustainability ensure?
Sustainability ensures that future generations can access the environment, while current generations use it effectively for social, economic and environmental gain
How can locals use the forest sustainably
- agroforestry: agriculture, make a living, get materials locally
- plant different trees & plants to increase biodiversity
Issues with sustainable forest management
- sustainable management generally provides fewer jobs - locals won’t benefit (soc/env)
- trees replanted for logging in the future can be slow growing - companies may cut down more of the natural forest (env)
- Sustainable forestry is usually more expensive - difficult to persuade companies to adapt to these methods (eco)
- Economic benefits only seen in long term - do not benefit people straight away (eco)
- Even selective logging can damage lots of trees in process of removing target trees (env)
Where is Kilum Ijim sustainable forest management and why is it under pressure? (CASE STUDY)
- It’s an area of mountain forest in Cameroon, Africa
- It’s under pressure from farming and logging for timber and fuel
- conservations aim: conserve forest so future generations could continue to use it
What group/organisations are taking part in the forest management reserve (CASE STUDY - Kilum Ijim sustainable forest management)
organisation: Bird Life international, Cameroon Ministry of the environment of forestry, Kew Gardens in London
What did the organisations and communities do to begin protecting the tropical rainforest? (CASE STUDY - Kilum Ijim sustainable forest management)
- marked out forest reserve area and made lists of forest resources
- Developed rules for the sustainable use of the forest
- Set up a unit to manage and monitor forest
- Educated communities about planting trees and safe levels of hunting and logging
How was the project successful? (CASE STUDY - Kilum Ijim sustainable forest management)
Yes as 50% of Kilum Ijim was forested between 1958 and 1988 before seen increased since management began
What challenges is the forest likely to face in the future? (CASE STUDY - Kilum Ijim sustainable forest management)
- population grow is bound to increase pressure and deforested areas
- Climate change could begin to degrade the forest
- Money and technical support from international donors could end
What different aspects to allow the forest to survive?
- Agroforestry: Growing trees and crops together. Some crops benefit from the shelter of the tree canopy. Trees also prevent soil erosion and crops benefit from the nutrients in the leaf litter.
- Selective Logging: Trees are only cut down when they reach a certain height. Young trees are allowed to mature so the height of the canopy is maintained.
- Afforestation: The replanting of trees to replace the original, primary forest that has been lost. This method does not maintain the biodiversity of a natural forest.
- Monitoring: Satellite technology and photos are used to ensure that no illegal activities are taking place and that landowners follow guidelines for sustainability.
- Protecting Areas: Just like in Costa Rica, this is simply about giving places legal protection and enacting tight laws that stop deforestation in
creating a wilderness
An area undisturbed by human activity (it is banned)
national park
An area mostly in natural state that is managed to protect biodiversity
sustainable forestry
Ways of harvesting forest without damaging it in the long-term
wilderness features (positives and negatives)
- large/remote areas are hard to police
+ has biggest level of protection - most human activity is banned
+ usually covers a very large area - so large scale processes can still take place
National Park features (positive and negative)
+ may be established to protect certain species
+ good access for tourists and recreational users
+ unsustainable human activities such as logging/mining are not permitted
- pressures from companies to build roads
Sustainable forestry features (positives and negatives)
- some country struggle to reinforce restrictions (e.g. Russia - lots of illegal logging takes place)
- different groups may not agree with the rule/restrictions of forestry (e.g. Loggers/government/indigenous people)
+ selective logging means some trees remain
+ limits placed on number of trees felled
+ companies may be required to regenerate area after logging
Wood Buffalo National Park - Where? What?
- located in N of the Athabasca tar sands mining area, Canads
- in 1982, it became a RAMSAR wetland site
- in 1983, it became a World Heritage Site
-> they agree to conserve them and provide funding to protect species from hunting, development or pollution - it is threatened by tar sands mining which is proposed close by, this could pollute the park’s Athabasca River and reduce its flow when water is taken for use in mining
- a problem with have these status’ in them means it’s hard to track these logging
Reason for protection in the Taiga
- many indigenous people e.g. the Sami people or Scandinavia depend on the forest for their traditional way of life
- taiga forests store a lot of carbon - deforestation will release this, which causes global warming
Reason for exploitation of the Taiga
- exploitation of the forest generates a lot of wealth for countries involved
- demand for resources is increasing - people need the wood, fuel and minerals that the forests provide
- forest industries provide a lot of jobs (e.g. forestry employs 25,000 people in Canada)
