Paper 2 - Sports Psychology

Question 1

Define personality

Answer 1

The sum of an individual’s characteristics which make them unique.

Question 2

Define arousal

Answer 2

Level of excitement and readiness to perform.

Question 3

What are the 4 primary personality types of Eysenck’s personality types

Answer 3

Introvert
Extrovert
Stable
Unstable

Question 4

Define introvert & extrovert personalities with examples

Answer 4

Introvert = Doesn’t seek social situations/shy/prefer individual activities
e.g. netball player avoiding communication with the team
Extrovert = Likes social situations/outgoing/prefers team sports
e.g. netball player socialising/communicating with teammates

Question 5

Define stable & unstable personalities with examples

Answer 5

Stable = Behaviour is predictable and consistent
e.g. netball player reacting in the same calm manner to decisions
Unstable = Behaviour is unpredictable
e.g. netball player reacting in a different way to decisions

Question 6

Eysenck : Introversion vs extroversion

Answer 6

Bases around Reticular Activating System (RAS). It is this part of the brain which responds to external stimuli such as social contact.
This function of the RAS is to maintain our optimum level of arousal:
Extroverts have low levels of RAS activity so low levels of arousal = seek more external stimulation to achieve higher levels of arousal.
Introverts have high levels of RAS activity so high levels of arousal = avoid external stimulation.

Question 7

Eysenck : Stable vs Unstable

Answer 7

Stable personality traits are unchangeable and remain consistent and predictable.
E.g. a stable trait could be calmness in most situations or high levels of anxiety in most situations.
Unstable personality traits are changeable and unpredictable, also referred to as neurotic.
E.g. an individual might be emotionally aggressive, but the amount of aggression varies from time to time.

Question 8

Identify Girdano’s Narrow Band Theory personality types (define & examples)

Answer 8

Type A = Prone to personal anxiety and stress/highly competitive/like to be in control/desire to succeed/works fast
e.g. football player volunteering to take penalties
Type B = Not prone to personal anxiety and stress/not competitive/doesn’t like to be in control/lacking desire to succeed/works slow
e.g. football player NOT volunteering to take penalties

Question 9

What does the trait theory propose

Answer 9

The trait theory proposes that personality is:
Innate/inherited
Stable and enduring
Consistent across situations

TRAIT= innate
e.g. a boxer inherits traits of aggression and demonstrates it both inside and out of the ring

B = F (P)
B = behaviour, F = function, P = personality traits

Question 10

Strengths & weaknesses of the trait theory

Answer 10

Strengths
Is some evidence to show that personality is innate (e.g. aggression)
If correct, behaviour can be predicted (e.g. by coaches)

Weaknesses
Unlikely to be just innate input that determines personality
Doesn’t take into account learnt behaviour
Identical twins brought up in different environments do not demonstrate the same personality, suggesting it’s not just traits that determine personality

Question 11

What does the social learning theory propose that personality is learnt as a result of?

Answer 11

B = F (E)

The environment
Imitation of significant other/role model
Learning requires reinforcement

Question 12

Explain the social learning theory with examples

Answer 12

This theory was presented by Bandura - (Most likely if same gender, race or position of authority)

This theory suggests that personality changes with the situation and the environment influences behaviours.
e.g. a young player imitating a captain kicking the ball out of play when an opposition player is injured and is clapped by crowd
(Would explain why we are like the people that are significant to us and why twins that have been separated have different personalities).

Question 13

Strengths and weaknesses of the social learning theory

Answer 13

Strengths
Evidence that some aspects of personality learned by watching and copying significant others/role models/environment
Bobo doll experiment from Bandura supports this idea

Weaknesses
Children/siblings/twins brought up in the same way don’t always display the same personality
Doesn’t take into account innate traits (trait theory)
If the theory was true, we would all have the same personality/copy our role models

Question 14

What does the interactionist theory propose

Answer 14

Personality formation is a combination of the trait and social learning approach
Innate traits are triggered by environmental change

B = F (P x E)

Question 15

Example of the interactionist theory

Answer 15

The trait of aggression is triggered following a high tackle in rugby or the trait of competitive anxiety is only triggered in a cup final

Question 16

Strengths and weaknesses of the interactionist theory

Answer 16

Strengths
More realistic than trait theory as it explains how the environment can trigger inherited traits
It explains why our behaviour is often unpredictable/why an individual might act differently in different situations
Explains why people in the same environment behave differently

Weaknesses
Theory still proposes that innate traits must be present to be triggered by the environment

Question 17

Define attitude

Answer 17

A predisposition to act in a particular way towards something or someone in a person’s environment.

Question 18

Explain attitude in more detail & link to an attitude object

Answer 18

Attitude is an enduring emotional and behavioural response
Attitude is unstable and can be changed and controlled
Attitudes are directed towards attitude objects, which can be places, situations and the behaviour of other people

Question 19

What are the 5 factors affecting attitude formation (SPERMS)

Answer 19

S : Socialisation - Friends playing sport may influence you to play sport
PE : Past Experience - Negative experience in PE lessons may discourage from playing sport
R : Religious Beliefs - Against Muslim religion for women to show skin in public places
M : Media - Newspaper article on benefits of exercise can lead to positive attitude
S : Significant Others / Role Models - Parents who take part in physical activity could encourage children to do so

Question 20

What are attitude objects

Answer 20

Attitude objects can be directed towards places, situations and people

Question 21

What are the two ways of changing attitudes

Answer 21

Attitudes and their influences provides useful information on how negative attitudes can be changed into positive ones.

There are 2 ways of changing attitudes:
Cognitive dissonance
Persuasive communication

Question 22

What is cognitive dissonance (& how does it work)

Answer 22

The process of Creating Disharmony between the components of attitude
Change two or more components of attitude
How?
Change the cognitive component for example running prevents CHD
Affective for example I start to enjoy running (endorphins)
Behavioural for example I now fo running 3 times a week
Causes drive to remove disharmony and regain consonance

Question 23

Describe persuasive communication (who, what, who, where)

Answer 23

This is an active, non-coercive attempt to reinforce, modify or change attitude of others.
WHO? Persuaded by a significant other/role model (e.g. coach, captain or parent persuading player to go to training)
WHAT? They communicate a relevant message (e.g. going to a spin class will help lose weight)
WHO? Receives information to a recipient who must have a desire to change attitudes (e.g. overweight person more likely to want to change lifestyle)
Where? Make sure the environment is relevant (e.g. if you want them to lose weight don’t take them to the coffee shop)

Question 24

What are the components of the triadic model? (Link to consonance & dissonance)

Answer 24

Cognitive - Beliefs towards an attitude object (e.g. running is good for your health or running causes injuries)
Affective - Emotions/feelings towards an attitude object (e.g. I enjoy running or I don’t enjoy running)
Behavioural - Actions towards an attitude object (e.g. I run 3 times a week or I refuse to go running)

Consonance = harmony or agreement amongst components (can have negative or positive consonance)
Dissonance = discomfort experienced when holding two or more conflicting aspects of triadic model

Question 25

What is social facilitation/inhibition?

Answer 25

The presence of an audience leads to an increase in arousal. This audience-based arousal can lead to positive or negative effects on performance.
Arousal = The ‘energised state’ or the ‘readiness for action’ that motivates us to behave in a particular way.

Question 26

What is social facilitation/inhibition?

Answer 26

The presence of an audience leads to an increase in arousal. This audience-based arousal can lead to positive or negative effects on performance.
Arousal = The ‘energised state’ or the ‘readiness for action’ that motivates us to behave in a particular way.

Question 27

Define social facilitation and social inhibition

Answer 27

Social Facilitation = The positive impact on sports performance of others who may be watching or competing is called social facilitation.

Social Inhibition = The negative influence on sports performance of others who may be watching or competing is called social inhibition.

Question 28

Social facilitation : factors affecting performance & dominant response

Answer 28

• The presence of an audience increases arousal.
• Increases in arousal will trigger the dominant response.
• If a skill is well-learned, response will be correct.
• If the skill is new or poorly learned, the response will be incorrect.

Dominant response = the most common response in a given situation.

Question 29

Effects of Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition on Performance

Answer 29

• The presence of an audience will spur some athletes on to great performances, while others may ‘choke’.
• We will explore some of the effects of different factors on sporting performance.

Question 30

Factors affecting weather audience-based arousal will lead to social facilitation (personality)

Answer 30

Extroverts / Type A
Likely to perform better because have a less sensitive reticular activating system (RAS).

Question 31

Factors affecting weather audience-based arousal will lead to social facilitation (ability/stage of learning)

Answer 31

High ability / autonomous
More likely to be helpful because player has a well learnt motor programme.

Question 32

Factors affecting weather audience-based arousal will lead to social facilitation (skill type)

Answer 32

Gross / Simple
Skills are helped because high arousal increases performance of these skills

Question 33

Factors affecting weather audience-based arousal will lead to social facilitation (audience factors)

Answer 33

Home Advantage
If audience in familiar setting performance helped. Physical proximity/size of crowd can increase arousal and motivation / determination / effort

Question 34

Factors affecting weather audience-based arousal will lead to social inhibition (personality)

Answer 34

Introverts / Type B
Likely to perform worse because they have a highly sensitive reticular activating system (RAS).

Question 35

Factors affecting weather audience-based arousal will lead to social inhibition (ability/stage of learning)

Answer 35

Low ability / cognitive
More likely to hinder performance because player has a poorly learnt motor programme.

Question 36

Factors affecting weather audience-based arousal will lead to social inhibition (skill type)

Answer 36

Fine / complex
Skills are hindered because these skills require low arousal to concentrate.

Question 37

Factors affecting weather audience-based arousal will lead to social inhibition (audience factors)

Answer 37

Disadvantage if away
Unfamiliar and hostile environment. Physical proximity / size of crowd can cause over arousal and decrease performance.

Question 38

What is evaluation apprehension

Answer 38

Evaluation Apprehension = Performers can suffer with evaluation apprehension during events. Arousal levels increase because you perceive that other people are judging/evaluating your performance.
E.g. Young tennis player may feel a heightened sense of arousal if they are inexperienced, not just because others are around but because of the fear that others are observing and ridiculing them.

Question 39

Strategies to minimise social inhibition

Answer 39

Mental rehearsal / imagery
Relaxation techniques
Train with an audience present
Groove/over learn skills
Decrease importance of event
Remaining calm/focused

Question 40

Strategies to minimise social inhibition : mental rehearsal / imagery

Answer 40

Mental Rehearsal/Imagery Techniques = Help to block out the audience so they don’t distract the performer (e.g. visualising scoring a penalty in your head).

Question 41

Strategies to minimise social inhibition : relaxation techniques

Answer 41

Relaxation Techniques = Deep breathing to help the performer relax and reduce tension.

Question 42

Strategies to minimise social inhibition : train with an audience present

Answer 42

Train with an Audience Present = Help the performer to get used to performing with an audience (e.g. taking a penalty in front of teammates in training).

Question 43

Strategies to minimise social inhibition : groove/overlearn skills

Answer 43

Groove/Overlearn Skills = To ensure they become the dominant response.

Question 44

Strategies to minimise social inhibition : decrease importance of event

Answer 44

Decrease Importance of Event = Try to play down the importance of the event to reduce nerves (e.g. reminding yourself it’s just a penalty in a cup game).

Question 45

Strategies to minimise social inhibition : remaining calm/focused

Answer 45

Remaining Calm/Focused = Counting to 10 to help performers control their thoughts and nerves (e.g. filtering out the crowd when taking a penalty).

Question 46

Define motivation

Answer 46

The internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behaviour.

Question 47

What is drive in relation to motivation

Answer 47

Drive = directed, motivated or energised behaviour that an individual has towards achieving a certain goal

Question 48

What are the two types of motivation?

Answer 48

Intrinsic
Extrinsic

Question 49

What is intrinsic motivation (definition, example & drives)

Answer 49

Intrinsic motivation = The internal drive to participate and succeed
Drives: fun, enjoyment, satisfaction, personal accomplishment, sense of pride, muscular sensuousness, catharsis (release of emotion)
e.g. wanting to complete a marathon for fun

Question 50

What is extrinsic motivation (definition, example & drives)

Answer 50

Extrinsic motivation = The external drive to participate or succeed
Drives: medals, money, trophies, badges, rewards
e.g. taking part in a running race to win a medal, parents being proud

Question 51

Intrinsic motivation : positives

Answer 51

May be more valuable
Could encourage lifelong participation in sport and exercise
It is more self sufficient (doesn’t rely on anyone else)

Question 52

Intrinsic motivation : negatives

Answer 52

Motives like fun and enjoyment may disappear over time
May not be enough to maintain motivation to participate
Cognitive performer may require more than just intrinsic motivation

Question 53

Extrinsic motivation : positive

Answer 53

May have more significant impact than intrinsic motivation
Effective way to get children to start learning
Could improve confidence levels

Question 54

Extrinsic motivation : negative

Answer 54

May not lead to lifelong participation in sport
Thought that it is not as valuable as intrisic motivators
Once rewards are removed, motivation may decline
Demotivating if you don’t achieve the ‘level’ required for extrinsic reward

Question 55

Define arousal (& link to motivation)

Answer 55

Arousal = The intensity of our behaviour to achieve something. The amount of drive we experience to achieve something.

Arousal represents the intensity aspect of motivation (internal and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behaviour).

Question 56

2 types of arousal & define

Answer 56

Arousal can be somatic or cognitive and can be positive or negative influence on performance.
Somatic = Relates to changing physiological state of the body. (E.g. increased heart rate).
Cognitive = Relates to changing psychological state of the body. (E.g. increases in anxiety).

Question 57

Name the 3 theories of arousal

Answer 57

As a performer’s arousal increases, the stage of readiness and expectation increases, but if the arousal gets too high, a performer can lose concentration and feel over-aroused.

1.Hull’s Drive theory
2. Inverted U theory
3.Catastrophe theory

Question 58

Arousal : Explain the drive theory (also diagram & in relation to dominant response)

Answer 58

A linear relationship between performance and arousal. Performance increases in line with an increase in arousal. High arousal = high performance (e.g. cricketer scores 6 runs when he is trying hard)
The dominant response is more likely as arousal increases. Quality of performance depends on how well skills have been learnt. Expert performers’ dominant response is skillful and technically correct. Performance = habit x drive/arousal (Dominant response = well learnt skill that the performer will revert to when under competitive pressure)

Question 59

Arousal : strengths of drive theory

Answer 59

Simple to understand
Made more reliable/accurate by relating arousal to dominant response
For some performers (experts/extroverts) accurate representation of what happens when arousal increases (e.g. Team GB at London 2012 Olympics)
More accurate for gross/simple skills (e.g. sprinting/weightlifting)

Question 60

Arousal : weaknesses of drive theory

Answer 60

Quality of performance does not always increase as arousal increases
Too simplistic a view of relationship between arousal and performance
Doesn’t consider individual differences/level of performer/personality/type of skill
Doesn’t explain why some experts/extroverts perform well at low arousal (e.g. scoring a goal when you aren’t trying in training)

Question 61

Arousal : explain inverted U theory (+ optimum performance at low and high arousal)

Answer 61

As arousal increases so does performance up to an optimal mid-point. Any further increases in arousal leads to a gradual decrease in performance. The optimum point varies according to the performer, their personality type and the skill being performed.

Where optimum performance occurs at lower levels of arousal:
Cognitive performers (inexperienced & unable to deal with higher arousal)
Introverts (have high reticular activating system (RAS) activity so perform better at lower arousal)
Fine skills (require high levels of precision & control, low levels of arousal produce more effective results)
Complex skills (require several decisions to be made and so are more effective at lower levels of arousal)

Where optimum performance occurs at higher levels of arousal:
Autonomous performers (experiences & able to perform successfully at high arousal)
Extroverts (have low levels of RAS so able to perform at high arousal levels)
Gross skills (don’t require precision & control so can perform at high arousal)
Simple skills (few decisions to be made so more effective at high arousal)

Question 62

Arousal : strengths of inverted U theory

Answer 62

Seen to be more realistic than drive theory
It is true that there is an optimum point of arousal, above or below this level then performance quality is lower
Simple, easy to understand or apply
Helps teachers/coaches to understand effect of arousal on performance
Recognises that optimal arousal differ for different people

Question 63

Arousal : weakness of inverted u theory

Answer 63

Still too simple with a limited view of the relationship between arousal and performance
Doesn’t consider the different types of arousal on performance
It could be said to be too even a distribution
Doesn’t say what happens after people under perform when over aroused, performance starts to deteriorate it doesn’t always carry on getting worse

Question 64

Arousal : Explain the catastrophe theory (+ know the diagram and steps of each part of the diagram)

Answer 64

Shows an extreme decline - a catastrophic response.
Theory is about the effects of different types of arousal.
E.g. A footballer putting in an early dangerous tackle in a cup final
E.g. A golfer on the final green experiences anxiety and misses an easy putt

As arousal increases, performance increases up to an optimum/midway point
⬇️
If high somatic arousal interacts with high cognitive arousal = extreme decline in performance (performance catastrophe)
⬇️
If arousal (cognitive) is controlled performance can improve/the upward curve can be rejoined
OR
⬇️
If arousal continues to increase, then performance will continue to decrease

Question 65

Strengths of the catastrophe theory

Answer 65

It is more realistic than other theories, explains why a performer ‘goes to pieces during a big event’
It explains why performance can suddenly or dramatically decline
Explains how some performers can recover and rejoin the upward curve of arousal
It is multidimensional theory, takes various factors into account
Currently the most accepted theory of arousal

Question 66

Weaknesses of the catastrophe theory

Answer 66

Some performers never experience a sudden decline (but a slow decline, as suggested by inverted U)
Optimal arousal may not be at midway point
It does not take into account personality/level of performer/type of skill

Question 67

Arousal : What is the peak flow experience

Answer 67

Peak Flow Experience = A term used by sports performers who achieve optimum performance levels and associate this with a particular emotional response. This describes feelings when almost nothing can go wrong, they are ‘in the zone’.
They are mental strategies which can help performers achieve this experience.

Question 68

Define aggression and assertion

Answer 68

Aggression - The intent to harm or injure outside the rules of the game
Assertion - Forceful behaviour within the laws of the game

Question 69

What are the 4 theories of aggression

Answer 69

Instinct theory (trait approach)
Social learning theory (environment)
Frustration-aggression hypothesis (interactionist approach)
Aggressive cue hypothesis (interactionist approach)

Question 70

Aggression : explain the instinct theory with example

Answer 70

1. Instinct theory (trait approach)
   The trait of aggression is innate
   Stable and enduring and consistent across situations
   Every individual has the trait of aggression which can be spontaneously released at any time

For example: A boxer inheriting the trait of aggression and demonstrating it inside
and outside the ring.

Question 71

Aggression : positives of the instinct theory

Answer 71

• Aggression can be innate/genetic
• Aggression are hard to control
• Some people are consistently aggressive
• Can feel a release of aggression/catharsis when channeling aggression into sport

Question 72

Aggression : negatives of the instinct theory

Answer 72

• Too simplistic/generalised
• Not all people show aggressive behaviour
• Aggression is often not spontaneous
• Aggression is often learned
• Aggression can depend on the environmental situation

Question 73

Aggression : explain the social learning theory with an example

Answer 73

2. Social learning theory (environment)
   Aggression is learned from the environment
   Learnt by matching and copying role models or significant others
   More likely to copy behaviour that has been reinforced

For example: A young football player imitates Luis Suarez biting (friends laugh and he continues to do it)

Question 74

Aggression : positives of the social learning theory

Answer 74

• Evidence to support the theory through Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment
• Evidence that aggression can be imitated from significant others

Question 75

Aggression : negatives of the social learning theory

Answer 75

• People can be aggressive without ever have seen aggression
• Doesn’t explain aggression in young children
• Doesn’t take into account innate traits
• People with similar role models act differently
• Some people will see aggression but won’t copy

Question 76

Aggression : explain the frustration aggression hypothesis (with examples and diagram)

Answer 76

Frustration will always lead to aggression
Catharsis = release of frustration which leads to a feeling of well-being.
For example:
The performer has a drive to achieve a goal (basketball player is dribbling towards the basket to score)
Goal directed behaviour is blocked (defender fouls the player)
Leads to frustration which leads to aggression (player hits out at defender)
If aggression is successful this is known as catharsis (player feels better and continues to play)
If aggression is unsuccessful or player is punished, frustration will increase (player feels even more frustrated and commits illegal foul)

DIAGRAM ON DOCS

Question 77

Aggression : positives of the frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 77

• More realistic than instinct theory
• Evidence of it happening in sport
• You do get a sense of catharsis when
frustration is released as aggression
• Acknowledge the link between frustration and aggression
• Could be useful to help coaches manage player’s aggression

Question 78

Aggression : negatives of the frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 78

• Frustration does not always lead to aggression
• Doesn’t take into account different
environment
• Unpunished aggression does not
always lead to catharsis
• Doesn’t take into account those born with aggressive traits
• Some people become motivated instead of frustrated

Question 79

Aggression : explain the aggressive cue hypothesis (with examples and diagram)

Answer 79

Goal directed behaviour is blocked which leads to frustration which leads to increased arousal
Increased arousal alongside an aggressive cue leads to aggression (e.g. ice hockey striker hitting defender with stick after shirt pull)
OR
Increased arousal alongside NO aggressive cue means less chance of aggression (e.g. if ice hockey player has dropped stick then no aggression)

DIAGRAM ON DOCS

Question 80

What are examples of aggressive cues

Answer 80

Weapons/objects (ice hockey stick/golf club/opposition shirt)
Nature of sport (boxing/ice hockey/rugby)
Places (playing where you got injured before)
People (rival/provoked by someone)
Nature of event (derby match/cup final)
Perceived unfairness (incorrect referee decision)
Witnessing violence (seeing teammate punched)

Question 81

Aggression : positives of the aggressive cue hypothesis

Answer 81

• Frustration can lead to increased
arousal
• Aggressive cues can lead to aggression
• Takes into account the environment

Question 82

Aggression : negatives of the aggressive cue hypothesis

Answer 82

• Aggression can occur without having high arousal levels
• People can walk away from aggressive cues

Question 83

What are the 6 methods to eliminate aggression (acronym to help)

Answer 83

Think RELAPS to prevent relapsing into aggressive behaviour
Removal from situation or remove cues
Educate about outcomes, make clear the consequences
Lower arousal use relaxation techniques/imagery to calm down
Attention use of selective attention to concentrate/block out
Punishment towards negative aggressive behaviour
Self talk use positive self-talk or raise self esteem

Question 84

What is anxiety

Answer 84

A negative emotional state associated with stress and can be caused by worry, apprehension or fear of failure.

Question 85

What are the 2 types of anxiety

Answer 85

Trait anxiety
State anxiety

Question 86

What is trait anxiety

Answer 86

Anxiety is innate, part of personality
It is stable and enduring
Consistent across situation, regardless of type or importance
For example: A long jumper is always
anxious before training and competitions.

Question 87

What is state anxiety

Answer 87

Anxiety from a specific situation
Temporary emotion
Experience apprehension and fear relating to parts of their performance (fear of failing/injury/embarrassment)
For example: A footballer feeling anxious before taking a penalty kick in football.

Question 88

What are the somatic and cognitive symptoms of anxiety

Answer 88

As a result of trait and/or state anxiety, the performer may experience changes.
These responses can be somatic or cognitive:
Somatic = physiological (symptoms = nauseous, increased blood pressure/HR, sweating, shaking)
Cognitive = psychological (symptoms = worrying, nervous, negative thoughts, poor decision making)

Question 89

What is ZOF in relation to anxiety (define and explain)

Answer 89

The zone of optimal functioning (ZOF) is thought of as an emotional state of well- being. This zone is an emotional response which facilitates top performance and is referred to as peak flow performance.
The ZOF is the level of anxiety/arousal which an individual performs best at.
When an individual is at their ZOF they will get their best performance. It is often termed as an individual being ‘in the zone’.

Question 90

Anxiety : characteristics to achieve zone of optimal functioning

Answer 90

Relaxed
Confident
Focused
Perform effortlessly
Movements are automatic
Enjoy/have fun
Arousal control
In control

Question 91

Anxiety : ZOF differences (3)

Answer 91

People require different levels of anxiety to perform at their best:

Introverts = lower ZOF (perform better at lower anxiety levels) Extroverts = higher ZOF (perform better at high anxiety levels)
Circumstances outside of individuals performance (e.g. suffering an injury)
Different emotional responses linked with performance (e.g. perform better calm or perform better angry)