Paper 2 - Skill Acquisition

Question 1

What are the 6 characteristics of a skillful movement?

Answer 1

Efficient, fluent, aesthetic, learned, goal directed and follows a technical model

Question 2

What does efficient mean in relation to a skillful movement?

Answer 2

The skill is well coordinated and appears effortless

Question 3

What does fluent mean in relation to a skillful movement?

Answer 3

The skill is well timed and precise, the movement is controlled

Question 4

What does aesthetic mean in relation to a skillful movement?

Answer 4

The skill is pleasing to the eye; the performer looks very competent

Question 5

What does learned mean in relation to a skillful movement?

Answer 5

The skill has had to be practised over a long period of time, it is a permanent change in behaviour and the skill can be performed time after time

Question 6

What does goal directed mean in relation to a skillful movement?

Answer 6

The skill will be aimed at achieving a set result

Question 7

What does follows a technical model mean in relation to a skillful movement?

Answer 7

Usually judge how good/skillful a performance is by comparing it to a perfect model

Question 8

What is the definition of a skillful performance?

Answer 8

A skill is learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximum certainty, often with the minimum outlay of time and energy or both

Question 9

What is extrinsic feedback in relation to stages of learning?

Answer 9

Feedback that comes from outside of the body (e.g. coach)

Question 10

What is intrinsic feedback in relation to stages of learning?

Answer 10

Feedback from internal sources (e.g. kinaesthetic feel)

Question 11

What is a motor programme in relation to stages of learning?

Answer 11

A specific pattern stored in the long term memory to perform a skill

Question 12

What is kinaesthetic feel in relation to stages of learning?

Answer 12

Internal feeling, knowing you have performed a skill correct

Question 13

What does habitual mean in relation to stages of learning?

Answer 13

Performance that is done consistently and regularly

Question 14

What is the cognitive stage of learning?

Answer 14

Is about gaining information and organising the cognitive process to produce movement, little practice occurs except towards the end of the stage (look at stages of learning doc for more info)

Question 15

What is the associative stage of learning?

Answer 15

Stage is longer than cognitive and performance gradually gets more successful with fewer mistakes and with rapid improvements. Skilled actions get smoother, more accurate, better timed and more efficient. Begin to demonstrate characteristics of skill. (look at stages of learning doc for more info)

Question 16

What is the autonomous stage of learning?

Answer 16

Motor programmes are completely formed and performance is almost automatic, there is spare attentional capacity which can focus in tactics and movement is fluent and efficient. Motor programmes are overlearned and grooved and become habitual with the ability to use kinaesthetic feel. May return to associative stage if don’t practise. (look at stages of learning doc for more info)

Question 17

What is a skill?

Answer 17

Describe the actions or techniques used within the activities. Indicates the quality of performance and action formed well may be referred to as a skill or skilful/skilled movement

Question 18

What is a continuum?

Answer 18

An imaginary scale between two extremes usually represented in linear forms

Question 19

What are the 6 continuums and the extremes for each?

Answer 19

Muscular Involvement Continuum (gross - fine)
Environmental Influence Continuum (open - closed)
Continuity Continuum (discrete - serial - continuous)
Pacing Continuum (self paced - externally paced)
Difficulty Continuum (simple - complex)
Organisational Continuum (low - high)

Question 20

Draw and label each continuum with a sporting example for each section

Answer 20

On bamboo paper

Question 21

What is the structure of practice?

Answer 21

Coaches must create best possible practise conditions to ensure skill learning (type and style of practise administrated)
May practise is structured is crucial to optimise skill learning and development
Practice conditions are determined by the nature of the skill and ability of the learner

Question 22

What are the 4 methods of learning skills?

Answer 22

Part Practice, Whole Practice, Whole-Part-Whole Practice, Progressive-Part Practice

Question 23

What is part practice?

Answer 23

Involved working on an isolated subroutine with the aim of perfecting it. The parts of the skill are practised in isolation. (more info on practice doc - read out loud to self)

Question 24

What is Whole Practice?

Answer 24

Practice where the skill is learned in its entirety without breaking it down into subroutines or parts. (more info on practice doc - read out loud to self)

Question 25

What is Whole-Part-Whole Practice?

Answer 25

Is where the performer attempts the whole skill first in its entirety, then practises a subroutine in isolation before putting them back together again to practise the skill as a whole. (more info on practice doc - read out loud to self)

Question 26

What is Progressive-part Practice?

Answer 26

A skill that is broken down into subroutines which can be seen as links to a chain. The performer learns one link at a time (isolate the subroutines) then adds a second link. 2 links then practised together (progressively chained) and then a third link and so on, until links can be practised together as a whole. This is also known as chaining. (more info on practice doc - read out loud to self)

Question 27

What are the 4 ways to practise a skill?

Answer 27

Massed practice, distributed practise, fixed practise, varied practise

Question 28

What is massed practise?

Answer 28

Practising a skill without a break (occurs when an activity is repeated continuously over a period of time with very little or no rest periods). (more info on practice doc - read out loud to self)

Question 29

What is distributed practice?

Answer 29

Short, frequent practice sessions interspersed with rest intervals. Rest intervals could allow for (recovery, feedback, learn new skill or mental rehearsal). (more info on practice doc - read out loud to self)

Question 30

What is fixed practice?

Answer 30

Practising in a stable and predictable environment, with practice conditions remaining unchanging and fixed. (more info on practice doc - read out loud to self)

Question 31

What is varied practice?

Answer 31

Practice that takes place with a variety of different situations to allow the performer to experience a range of different experiences. (more info on practice doc - read out loud to self)

Question 32

What is feedback and when does it occur?

Answer 32

Feedback occurs as a result of the movements we make and is used to compare our performance with what we intended to do. Should help with improvement.

Question 33

What is kinaesthesis?

Answer 33

Feel of movement, detected by proprioceptors, helps autonomous performer to correct movements, helps with fluency

Question 34

What is intrinsic feedback? (definition, example, +/-)

Answer 34

Information about the kinaesthetic feel of the movement that comes from within the performer
E.g. Performer physically feeling that they hit the sweet spot with a badminton racket
+ effective for autonomous / instant feedback / self detection & correction of errors
- ineffective for cognitive / may not be accurate kinaesthetic feel / different sensory effectiveness (some gain more feedback and improves more then others)

Question 35

What is extrinsic feedback? (definition, example, +/-)

Answer 35

Information that comes from an external source to the performer that an be received by the visual or auditory systems
E.g. Coach says they have performed a cartwheel correctly
+ effective for cognitive stage / objective (factual) / increase confidence & motivation
- may be over reliant (lack kinaesthesis) / inaccurate if coach lacks knowledge / TMI = overload performer

Question 36

What is positive feedback? (definition, example, +/-)

Answer 36

Gives information about a successful outcome and is often praise or positive comments about performance which can be intrinsic or extrinsic
E.g. praising a teammate for successful layup in basketball
+ effective for cognitive / strengthens S-R bond / reinforces skill learning (when things are good) / motivates & confidence
- ineffective if isn’t specific enough / strengthen wrong S-R bonds if used when it shouldn’t / lose effect when used too often

Question 37

What is negative feedback? (definition, example, +/-)

Answer 37

Information about an unsuccessful outcome/performance which can be criticism and focus on poor aspects of performance an can be intrinsic or extrinsic
E.g. Coach criticising netball paper for poor pass into the shooters
+ effective for autonomous (refining skills technique) / specific = know what is wrong / motivating (increase determination and strive for higher performance)
- ineffective for cognitive / lose confidence and motivation / not specific = don’t know how to improve / hinders performance if incorrect feedback given

Question 38

What is knowledge of performance feedback? (definition, example, +/-)

Answer 38

Information about how well the movement was execute (technique) and concerns the moment and the quality of it, normally external but can be internal due to kinaesthetic awareness
E.g. Coach explaining to performer what went well in their javelin throw
+ cognitive (understanding & improve), autonomous (refine technique) / kinaesthetic awareness / motivate & confidence / immediate corrections during match
- inaccurate = decrease performance / overload performer = confusion / gradually given for beginners

Question 39

What is knowledge of results feedback? (definition, example, +/-)

Answer 39

Information about outcome of performance can be intrinsic and extrinsic and is terminal (comes at the end of the performance), can be positive or negative and is important in improving the next performance of the movement
E.g. You ran the 100m in 12.5 seconds
+ measurable & objective / successful KOR strengthens S-R bonds / motivates & confidence/ effective for cognitive and autonomous (all need to know if successful)
- statistic based (ineffective for cognitive) / may decrease confidence etc as may have played well & score not reflected / used after performance / not used in aesthetic sports (e.g. gymnastics as that focuses on technique

Question 40

What is guidance and what decided what type of guidance is used?

Answer 40

As a coach you have to decide the best way to transmit knowledge. There are 4 types and the type chosen depends on :
Personality
Motivation
Ability of performer
Situation
Nature of skill being developed

Question 41

What is visual guidance? (definition, example, +/-)

Answer 41

The learner watches a model to form a mental image of the skill. (demonstrations, videos, charts and other visual aids)
E.g. individuals watch a demonstration of front crawl arms by their teacher.
+ mental picture created/cognitive stage/understand movement requirements & error correction/encourages observational learning (draw attention to important cues)
- poor demos = bad habits/coach show inaccurate demo/demo to complex or quick to be effective/no feedback so less effective for autonomous

Question 42

What is verbal guidance? (definition, example, +/-)

Answer 42

An explanation of how to perform the specific activity. Spoken instructions telling what to do.
E.g. coach telling their football team what tactics they should use in a game.
+ builds knowledge from visual/info result in improved performance/weaknesses highlighted and addresses/focus on key aspects & relevant cues/detail aid’s understanding or focus on tactics
- info overload/unclear & incorrect info = inhabit skill development/skills too complex for verbal alone/ boring & demotivating/not understanding terminology leads to confusion

Question 43

What is manual guidance? (definition, example, +/-)

Answer 43

Learner is given physical support by a teacher/coach. Involve moving the joints or limbs.
E.g. coach physically supporting a gymnast to perform a back walkover.
+ reduce fear from dangerous sports/increase confidence, try on own after/kinaesthetic feel/cognitive stage
- not like coach touching/reliant -> lack confidence/false sense of kinaesthesis/intrinsic feedback incorrect -> bad habits/relevant for only some skills & difficult for some skills

Question 44

What is mechanical guidance? (definition, example, +/-)

Answer 44

Learner uses equipment or apparatus to help performance? The equipment being used supports the body through the movement
E.g. using a harness in trampolining when learning how to perform a front somersault
+ reduce fear/build confidence/increase safety/kinaesthesis development/cognitive stage
- over restrictive & lack control of movements/reliant = lack confidence/false kinaethesis/intrinsic feedback incorrect = bad habits/limited support for all sports so not many sports use

Question 45

Consideration of all 4 guidances

Answer 45

Visual - demo accurate/avoid info overload, focus few aspects/position of learner allows gain max benefit of demo/demo repeated = formation of mental image
Verbal - some not explainable/direct verbal good for early learning stage/verbal hold attention (not too long, lose attention)/question technique encourages development and confidence
Manual - different support levels/remove soon as -> confidence & independence/participate fully avoid neg effects on motivation
Mechanical - remove soon as -> confidence & independence/participate fully avoid neg effects on motivation

Question 46

What is transfer of learning and the 5 types of it?

Answer 46

The influence that one skill has on the learning of another
(Rarely learn new without any previous knowledge, common when learning motor skills, increases when two tasks are similar)
Positive, negative, proactive, retroactive, bilateral

Question 47

Info about learning new skills

Answer 47

Common to learn basic skills first and then build on to achieve more sophisticated skills
E.g. primary school, PE teaches fundamental motor skills (FMS) of running, jumping, throwing, catching, etc
Basic skills can be transferred into more complex activities such as netball and football

Question 48

What is positive transfer + example?

Answer 48

Learning of one skill enhances learning of another skill
E.g. throwing a javelin develops from the experience of throwing a ball

Question 49

How to optimise positive transfer?

Answer 49

ALWAYS GIVE EXAMPLES WHEN EXPLAINING
- teach similar skills close together
- don’t teach conflicting skills at same time
- make sure previous skill well learned
- emphasise similar movements/elements
- praise when positive transfer occurs
- teach FMS first
- practices realistic/game related
- utilise progressive practices

Question 50

What does the acronym SWEEP stand for and used for

Answer 50

Optimise positive transfer of learning
S - similar skills
W - well learnt first skill
EE - emphasise transferable elements
P - praise/positive reinforcement

Question 51

What is negative transfer + example?

Answer 51

Learning of one skill hinders learning of another
E.g. tennis player when playing badminton, may not generate enough power to hit shuttlecock effectively due to normally playing with firm wrist but now needing flexible wrist for badminton

Question 52

Causes + how to limit negative transfer

Answer 52

CAUSES
- performer misunderstands movement requirements
- familiar stimulus require different response
- conflicting skills taught closely together
- practice environment different to competitive environment
- different skills appear similar but aren’t
LIMITING
- grooving skills (throughly learned before moving on)
- clear + concise demonstrations
- progressive practice (build up skills)
- conflicting skills (avoid close together)
- realistic/game related practice/environment
- highlight differences

Question 53

What is proactive transfer + example?

Answer 53

Previously learned skill affects learning of new skill
E.g. knowing how to throw helps learn an overarm bowl in cricket

Question 54

What is retroactive transfer + example?

Answer 54

Current learning of new skill affects performance of previously learned skill
E.g. golf drive (new skill) affects performance of hockey hit (previously learned skill) as your swing will be too high

Question 55

What is bilateral transfer + example?

Answer 55

Learning is transferred from limb to limb (e.g. arm to arm)
E,g. Footballer dominantly right footbed leaning to shoot with left foot
(2 stages, cognitive = understanding what is required, motor programmes transferred = pattern of movement learned by one limb is subconsciously transferred to other)

Question 56

Schema’s in relation to transfer

Answer 56

Supports schemas theory (all info needed to make a movement decision is stored in LTM)
- motor programmes clustered and changeable to respond to a situation
- transfer helps build schema (positive transfer increased if performer has a breadth of experience)
E.g. positional play for experienced footballer could transfer positively if took up hockey (invasion games)

Question 57

What is the Connectionist theory also known as and how is it shown in practice?

Answer 57

Operant conditioning
1. The teacher presents a stimulus in a relevant sports situation
2. The learner, through trial and error, will react to the stimulus
3. When the learner reacts to the teacher will then shape or modify the behaviour
4. When the learner performs the correct response, the teacher will use positive reinforcement or a reward

Question 58

What does the operant conditioning/Connectionist theory consist of?

Answer 58

Connecting a S-R bond
Trial & error learning
Correct response is rewarded, this reinforces the correct response
This behaviour is shaped (changed)
E.g. passing in football (stimulus = free team mate, response = successful pass to them)

Question 59

How do we practice operant conditioning/Connectionist theory?

Answer 59

Structure the conditions - manipulate the environment so that the focus is on the desired outcome
E.g. Passing the ball through a target/mini goal
Trial and error - multiple attempts at the skill
E.g. 5 attempts at passing through the target
Behaviour shaping - successful attempts form a response
E.g. Successfully passing through the target form the correct passing response

Question 60

How do we use reinforcement to strengthen stimulus-response (S-R) bonds?

Answer 60

Positive reinforcement - Praise used to strengthen S-R bonds towards desired response
E.g. Coach saying well done for passing through the target
Negative reinforcement - Removal of a negative stimulus to strengthen S-R bind towards the desired response
E.g. Coach stops saying ‘bad pass’ when a successful pass is made
Punishment - Negative stimulus to weaken S-R bond towards undesired response
E.g. Coach giving 10 laps for missing a pass

Question 61

What is Thorndike’s Laws?

Answer 61

Thorndike proposed 3 laws which he thought should be taken into consideration when trying to connect S-R binds
Law of exercise
The response should be practised and rehearsed for learning to take place.
Skills improve through training so you train more
E.g. Netball player continuously practises her footwork when catching a ball, she is more likely to
imitate this response during a competitive game
Law of readiness
Performer should be physically and mentally capable to perform the skill
E.g. If a swimmer is incapable of swimming a length then a coach may shorten the distance
Law of effect
The effect of the response dictates the next response
If the response is followed by positive reinforcement (S-R bond strengthened)
If the response is followed by punishment (S-R bond will be weakened
E.g. Of beginner football player performs a good pass to a free player and their coach praises
them, it is more likely that the player will repeat this and perform the skill successfully again

Question 62

Benefits of using operant conditioning?

Answer 62

• Helps performers to form correct S-R bonds
• Coach has an influence to correct learning
• Manipulation of the environment allows the performer to learn the correct response
• Positive reinforcement leads to skill learning, strengthens S-R binds and increases confidence and motivation
• Learning is quick if reward is given
• Effective for young performers
• Can be utilised at any stage of learning

Question 63

Cognitive theory of learning

Answer 63

• Associated with the brain and mental processes to learn and solve problems
• Theory based on Gestaltism and problem so,vine
• Believes that ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’

Question 64

Key aspects of cognitive theory of learning

Answer 64

Whole learning - Proposes that skills are learnt best as a whole
E.g. learn arm and leg action together for front crawl
Intervening variables - Use of mental processes such as mental rehearsal
E.g. visualising front crawl action successfully before attempting
Perception - Interpretation of information
E.g. interpret the timing of arm and leg movements
Past experiences - To formulate new ideas
E.g. past experience of other strokes to help learning front crawl
Insight learning - The use of intuition
E.g. using intuition to work out the time of arm and leg movements to complete front crawl

Question 65

What is the cognitive stage of learning most/least effective for?

Answer 65

Most effective for : Autonomous performers
Have the mental processes to use mental rehearsal
Have the level of insight to use intuition
Less effective for : Cognitive performer
Do not know what the skill looks like
Haven’t got a mental picture to help solve the problem

Question 66

Observational learning theory (social learning theory)

Answer 66

• Theory proposed by Bandura
• States that our behaviour is determined by the situation or social environment
• Behaviour is, therefore, created through a process of observing others and imitating their
  behaviour

Question 67

Key parts of the observational learning theory (social learning theory)

Answer 67

Demonstration - Coach showing how to perform a skill
E.g. passing in football
Attention - Observer must focus on key points of the demonstration
E.g. side of foot when passing in football
Retention - Memorising key points via mental rehearsal and repetition
E.g. repeating a pass in football
Motor reproduction - Being physically and mentally able to match the demonstration
E.g. being physically able to pass with the correct technique
Motivation - Drive to match performance
E.g. coach using praise will increase drive to match demonstration

Question 68

Factors that will influence successful modelling of behaviour

Answer 68

More likely to copy model if :
- Significant other (someone you look up to, coach, role model)
- Similar to us (same age, gender, race, sport, position)
- Model’s behaviour is reinforced and praised
- Model is warm, friendly and attractive to the observer
- Demonstration is of a high standard, accurate and successful
- Observer is focused on relevant cues and can remember what they have seen
- Visual guidance
- Demonstration is repeated
- Observer is motivated to copy the model

Question 69

Define perception & selective attention

Answer 69

Perception - Stimulus identification (as info received from environment the performer need to make sense of. Interpret it & identify elements that are relevant and important). 3 elements = detection, comparison & recognition
Selective Attention - Sorting out relevant info from many that are received. Irrelevant info is filtered and not attended too.

Question 70

Draw and describe each section of Atkinson and Shiffren’s multi-store memory model (with examples)

Answer 70

Drawing on bamboo

Example is catching the ball in cricket.
Input - Refers to the information received from the surroundings.
E.g. When catching the ball a cricketer will receive information about the ball, the batter and surrounding players.
Short term sensory store - The area of the brain which receives information and holds it for a short time (less than a second) prior to processing. Very large storage capacity (limitless). Information deemed unimportant is lost and forgotten and replaced by new information (selective attention).
E.g. Focuses on speed, direction and trajectory of the ball (selective attention)
Short term memory - The part of the brain that keeps information for a short period (30 seconds) after it has been deemed worthy of attention. Known as the workspace or working memory. The STM can carry between 5-9 separate items of information. Information can be used for problem solving. Important information is encoded into the LTM for permanent storage.
E.g. Flight of ball is remembered so info is chunked in the brain to make the catch
Long term memory - The part of the brain which retains information for long periods of time (up to the lifetime of the performer, permanent). Very well learned information is stored. Here we store information on motor programmes and patterns of movement. LTM is limitless and not forgotten but may require a code for the information to be recalled. Information is decoded to the STM for recall and retrieval.
E.g. Successful performances are remembered and the movement required for catching the ball can now be performed.

Question 71

Strengths and weaknesses of the Atkinson and Shiffren’s MSM

Answer 71

STRENGTHS
-Easy to understand
-Explains how individual can deal with large amounts of info
-Realistic answer to how an individual deals with and filters info that they take in
-Long term element explains how an individual can perform skill they haven’t done for a long time
-It is true that info which is repeated and chunked is more likely to be stored in the LTM
-True that some info is difficult to retrieve from the LTM to STM
WEAKNESSES
-Too simplistic (not enough detail)
-Doesn’t explain why individuals might remember 1 type of info but not another
-Not quantify how much repetition results in LTM storage as not everything which is repeated is stored in the LTM
-Doesn’t account for individual differences in capacity and duration
-Doesn’t account for interest, motivation and concentration differences which influences memory

Question 72

What is Craik and Lockhart’s Levels of processing model?

Answer 72

Opposes the view that there are set memory stores shown by the multi-store memory model
It explains what we do with the information rather than how it is stored and has no set structure & how deeply we consider or process information dictates how long memory lasts

Information received by the brain will be transferred into the long term memory and therefore remembered more of the information :
Is considered, understood & has meaning (related to past memories)
Therefore, the meaning of the information is much more relevant than just repetition.
How much the information is considered is called the ‘depth of processing’
The deeper the information is processed, the longer the memory trace will last.

Question 73

What are the 3 levels of processing in relation to memory?

Answer 73

Structural - what info looks like
Phonetic - what info sounds like
Semantic - what info means (deeper level of processing)

Question 74

What are the 2 types of processing in relation to memory?

Answer 74

Shallow processing - Processing what the info looks like (shape & flight of tennis ball) and what the information sounds like (noise made by ball). Structural & phonetic.
Shallow processing results in a weak memory trace being formed and only short term retention of information.
Deeper processing - Processing the meaning of the info (ball is hit hard so going to travel quickly). Semantic. Deeper processing results in a strong memory trace being formed, and long term retention of information that can help future performance.

Question 75

What are strengths & weaknesses of the Craik and Lockhart’s Levels of processing model?

Answer 75

STRENGTHS
-Explains remembering is better with a meaning & deeper processing
-Explains why somethings are remembered better than others
WEAKNESSES
-Doesn’t explain how memory is stored (doesn’t define deep processing)
-No diagram to visualise it
-Simple explanation for a complex subject
-Longer time it takes to process info does not always lead to better recall

Question 76

What are ways to improve memory?

Answer 76

Repetition/over learning movements and routines
Chunking of info or organisation
Use of mental preparation
Meaningful or relevant info
Making info more interesting and enjoyable
Linking knowledge to previous experiences
Positive feedback and reinforcement