Paper 1 - Preparation & Training (Up To ergogenic aids) Flashcards
What is the opposite to muscle hypertrophy
Muscle atrophy
What are the 10 principles of training (& way to remember)
MRS VOPP T WC
moderation, reversibility, specificity
variance, overload, progression, periodisation
testing
warm up, cool down
Principles of training : moderation definition and example of how to apply the principle
Too much overload/progression leads to overtraining/burnout and injury. Too little overload/progression means no physical adaptations will be achieved.
Ensuring rest days are included. Mixing light and heavy workouts in order to avoid injury through overtraining.
Principles of training : reversibility definition and example of how to apply the principle
Adaptations to training are reversed if training is reduced/stops.
During periods of injury, holidays or illness, if you stop training your adaptations will reverse. A poorly planned programme may result in loss of fitness.
Principles of training : specificity definition and example of how to apply the principle
Training must reflect the physiological demands of the activity. Specific training achieves specific adaptations. Specific energy systems, muscles & movements can be selected.
Long distance cyclists will undertake predominantly aerobic/endurance training on a bike and concentrate on their lower body leg muscles.
Principles of training : variance definition and example of how to apply the principle
Vary training methods to maintain interest and motivation and avoid overuse injuries.
Movement patterns specific to swimming don’t always have to be done in the water - they can be repeated within resistance training using free weights, multi-gym, body weights, circuit training exercises and using rope/pulley resistance machines. Aerobic capacity can also be developed via running or cycling.
Principles of training : overload definition and example of how to apply the principle
The body must work harder than normal capacities to adapt to the training. Overload is achieved by adjusting the frequency, intensity, time and type of training (FITT).
To achieve overload apply FITT:
Frequency : add an additional workout to the programme
Intensity : lift a slightly higher % of 1RM
Time : add additional time to a run
Type : change from multigym to free weights
Principles of training : progression definition and example of how to apply the principle
Progressively increase overload to keep increasing the body’s fitness capacity.
Gradually increase FITT
Principles of training : periodisation definition and example of how to apply the principle
The division of training into smaller units with a specific long-term goal/objective. Periodisation attempts to optimise a physiological peak, prevent overtraining and maintain motivation. It is split into macro-, meso- and micro-cycles.
Use specific training cycles to meet targets (micro and meso-cycles). These targets all contribute to the macro-cycle goal.
Principles of training : testing definition and example of how to apply the principle
Completion of an appropriate test prior to designing a training programme so it can be set at an appropriate level.
An aerobic runner may use the multi-stage fitness test, pre-, mid- and post-training to measure adaptations.
Principles of training : warm up definition and example of how to apply the principle
Prepares the body physically and mentally for the exercise to follow : pulse training, mobility, stretching.
A warm up should proceed physical activity (any game or training session) and include pulse raising, mobility and stretching. This will reduce the chance of injury, reduce the need for recovery and maximise the training session.
Principles of training : cool down definition and example of how to apply the principle
Pulse-lowering activities to gradually reduce heart rate and stretching exercise to promote recovery.
A cool down should be performed after any physical activity (any game or training session) and include pulse lowering and stretching. Recovery will be maximised, reducing DOMs, allowing for more regular training.
Periodisation Cycles (identify each part)
Periodisation = a principle of training where training must be systematically structured to reflect long, medium and short-term goals in order that peak performance is reached at the correct time. There are 3 terms used to divide training into sized blocks of time.
1. Macrocycle
2. Mesocycle
3. Microcycle
Define the 3 terms that divide up the periodisation cycle (+ examples)
Macrocycle = a long term training plan (typically 1 year or over) to reach a long term goal (e.g. sprinter preparing for PB or major event)
Mesocycle = a mid term training plan (4-12 weeks) to reach a mid term goal. There are several meso cycles in a Macrocycle, each with their own medium term goals. When each mesocycle has been completed the athlete should have achieved the long term goal of the Macrocycle. (e.g. sprinter focusing in explosive strength)
Microcycle = a short term training plan (1-3 weeks) to reach a short term goal. There are several micro cycles in a mesocycle each with their own short-term goals. When each micro cycle has been completed, the athlete should have achieved the medium term goal of that mesocycle. (e.g. sprinter working in their sprint start or mastering a specific weight lift to aid training)
A coach will use these periodisation cycles to plan the entire training program. The coach and athletes can monitor the progress towards achieving the long-term goal. Seeing progress, builds an athletes confidence, motivation and commitment.
Periodisation of training : identify the phases of training
The goals and design of each mesocycle are based on which of the three main phases of training the athlete is in
- Preparatory phase
- Competitive phase
3 Transition phase
Explain the 3 phases of training
Preparatory phase:
Off season = general fitness training to create a base for …
Pre season = more specific fitness work, and progression used to increase training intensity
Competitive phase:
Maintenance of fitness = principle of moderation applied to avoid injury
Focus on tactics and strategy
Tapering used to optimise performance
Transition phase:
Recovery from the competitive season
Light training to avoid excessive reversibility
Treatment of any injury
Explain tapering to optimise performance
Tapering is a gradual reduction of training volume in the time immediately before the major competition. This competition may be the long-term goal of the macrocycle.
Tapering involves reducing training volume whilst maintaining intensity. This involves reducing session frequency and duration and increasing rest periods.
Performance is optimised
Positives : fuel stores, such as muscle and liver, glycogen, or maximised muscles, are fully repaired and recovered.
Negative : lethargy, concerns about weight gain, miss the endorphins from training
What are the 3 components of fitness?
Strength
Aerobic Capacity
Flexibility
Components of fitness : Define strength (also static & dynamic strength)
Strength - Strength is the ability to apply a force. There are several types of strength, and these are important in different activities in sport.
Static Strength - The ability to apply force against a resistance without any movement occurring (an isometric contraction). The muscle length remains constant.
E.g. Handstand hold in gymnastics, plank
Dynamic Strength - The ability to apply force to overcome a resistance where movement occurs (an isotonic contraction). The muscle length changes.
E.g. Pull up on bars in gymnastics, bicep curl
Components of fitness : define strength endurance, maximum strength and explosive/elastic strength
Strength Endurance - The ability to sustain repeated muscular contractions (or a single isometric contraction) over a period of time.
E.g. 2000m rowing, long distance swimming, gymnastics bar routine
Maximum Strength - The ability to produce a maximum amount of force in a single muscular contraction.
E.g. rugby scrum
Explosive/elastic Strength - The ability to produce a maximal amounts of force in one or a series of rapid muscular contractions.
E.g. triple jump, Olympic weightlifting, javelin
Components of fitness : 4 factors affecting strength
Cross Sectional Area - The greater the cross-sectional area of muscle (size of muscle), the greater the strength. Maximum of 16-30 newtons of force per square centimetre of muscles.
Fibre Type - The greater % of fast glycolytic and fast oxidative glycolytic (Type 2b & 2a) fibres, the greater the strength over a short period. Larger motor units with rapid, high force contractions.
Gender - Males have a higher muscle mass and cross sectional area on average due to high testosterone levels. When this is expressed per unit of cross sectional area the difference between genders largely disappears.
Age - Peak of strength in females between 16-25 and males are 18-30 years. This decreases after due to a decrease in efficiency of the neuromuscular system, loss of muscle elasticity and loss of testosterone.
Components of fitness : define aerobic capacity & what body systems is it dependent on
Aerobic Capacity - The ability to take in, transport and use oxygen to sustain prolonged periods of aerobic/sub maximal work.
Dependent on body systems - Respiratory, cardiovascular (heart & vessels), muscular (ability to use O2)
Components of fitness : define VO2 max & say average values
VO2 Max (same as aerobic capacity) - The highest rate of oxygen consumption attainable during maximal aerobic exercise. Is the measure of the most amount of oxygen you can take in, transport and use. An ability to work at a high % of VO2 max (below anaerobic threshold) is a key indicator of aerobic endurance.
High aerobic capacity = High VO2 max
Average VO2 Max (male = 45-54 ml/kg/min) (female = 36-44 ml/kg/min)
The higher the value = the better the aerobic work
Components of fitness : 6 factors affecting VO2 max
Individual physiological make up
Respiratory System - Ability to consume (take in) and diffuse oxygen (lung volume, strength of respiratory muscles, number of alveoli & capillaries)
Cardiac System - Ability to transport oxygen (heart hypertrophy - stroke volume)
Vascular System - Ability to transport oxygen (flexibility of vessels to perform vascular shunt, venous return mechanisms, blood volume, red blood cell count)
Muscle Cells - To use oxygen (amount of myoglobin & capillaries, stores of fuel glycogen and fat to produce energy)
Training
A specific programme (specificity) of aerobic training will increase VO2 max/aerobic capacity due to the adaptations that take place.
Age
As we get older our VO2 max declines as our body systems become less efficient. Approx 1% decline per year (10% per decade).
CV System (decline)
Max heart rate decreases (6-10 BPM per decade)
Cardiac output/stroke volume/blood transportation to muscle tissue decreases mainly due to weakening of contraction of left ventricle and elasticity of cardiac and vascular tissue (heart and arteries/arterioles)
Respiratory System (decline)
Decrease in maximum ventilation - both vital capacity and minute ventilation is reduced. This is due to the decrease in elasticity of the lung tissue and respiratory muscle. There is also a decrease in contractile strength of the respiratory muscles.
Part of the decline is due to falling activity levels. Maintaining activity will slow physical degradation
Gender
VO2 max values are generally 20-25% less for women. This is mainly due to:
Smaller body size - smaller lung size (O2 intake/external respiration)
Smaller left ventricle - lower stroke volume and cardiac output at max work rates.
Lower blood volume - less haemoglobin (less O2 carrying capacity).
Women are also disadvantaged by carrying a greater % of body fat - lowering their VO2 max per Kg of body mass.
What are the 5 strength tests & what types of strength do they test for
Strength endurance:
Abdominal curl test
Press up test
Maximum strength:
1 repetition maximum
Grip strength dynamometer
Explosive/elastic strength:
Vertical jump test
Strength tests : abdominal curl test (describe & +/-)
Abdominal Curl Test : NCF test which involves performing sit ups in time with a bleep. The test is progressive, and the performer continues until failure. The score is based on the time/cumulative sit ups completed.
+ Valid and reliable test
Simple and cheap to carry out
Can test large groups at same time
Targets abdominal strength
- Injury risk due to strain on lower back (good technique essential)
Maximal test limited by motivation
Not sports specific
(e.g. swimmers or cyclists may be at a disadvantage).
Strength tests : press up test (describe & +/-)
Press Up Test : The performer completes as many press ups as possible, hands shoulder width apart, maintaining good form. The test score is the total number completed.
+ No equipment required.
Simple to set up and conduct.
Can be conducted almost anywhere.
- Assistant required to administer the test.
Different techniques and classifications of correct technique (most likely is elbow needs to go to 90°).
Strength tests : 1 repetition maximum (describe & +/-)
1 Repetition Maximum : The performer selects a piece of gym equipment or free weights exercise to test the strength of a specific muscle group. The score is the highest weight that the performer can lift once.
+ Most muscle groups can be tested
Easy procedure on accessible equipment
- Cannot isolate specific muscles (use in things like squats which use a lot of different muscles)
Trial and error whilst finding weight leads to fatigue
Injury risk when lifting maximum
Strength tests : grip strength dynamometer (describe & +/-)
Grip Strength Dynamometer : The performer takes 3 turns with each hand and records the best score shown on the dial. It should be dialled back to zero after each attempt.
+ Simple procedure
Reliable and cheap equipment
- Only forearm strength tested
Not sport specific movement
Strength tests : vertical jump test (describe & +/-)
Vertical Jump Test : The performer marks their maximal standing reach height with one arm, then performs a standing vertical jump to mark their highest jump reach. The score is the difference between the two marks.
+ Using a formula the gains can be converted into a power output estimate.
Easy test with minimal equipment
Can be self administered
- The subject must time the jump so that the wall is marked at the peak of the jump.
Only estimates explosive strength in legs
Technique may effect the result
Ways to train strength
Training to improve strength involves applying a form of resistance to make the muscle group work harder.
Strength endurance training tends to involve lower resistance with a greater number of repetitions.
Maximum and explosive strength involves higher resistance and fewer repetitions.
Guidelines are shown in the table on docs (components of fitness). There are reps, sets, work:relief ratio, time between sets/rest, resistance
4 types of training for strength
Multi-Gym : A piece of equipment with a range of stations and adjustable weight stacks. Movement of the weight is controlled - increasing safety.
Weights : Free weights using dumbbells or barbells can be used to work specific muscle groups. Other muscles (including the core stability muscles) also work as fixators to stabilise the movement increasing their isometric strength.
Plyometrics : Training involving bounding, jumping, press ups with claps etc. This takes advantage of the stretch reflex - a contraction of a muscle in response to it being stretched, which is a protective mechanism. An eccentric contraction (controlled, downwards action) occurs first which causes a more forceful concentric contraction to follow. This increases explosive strength.
Circuit/Interval Training : Periods of work on a series of exercise stations, followed by relief intervals where the muscle group recovers. This recovery may occur whilst another area of the body is being worked at the next station. Circuit/interval training can include free weights as well as body weight exercises and usually targets strength endurance. An advantage is that it can be used with large groups. Designed by manipulating the intensity & duration of the work period, relief interval (between sets or between stations), number of intervals (how many times circuit is repeated). These factors are all flexible and so sessions can be easily tailored to for the strength goals of the performer.
Plyometrics in detail later on
+/- of types of training for strength
Multi-gym
+ Safe resistance method
Simple weight adjustment
Good for general strength development
- Does not use stabilising (fixator) muscles
Not specific to sporting movement patterns
Free weights
+ Specific movement
Can improve balance and coordination
Uses stabilising muscles
Adjustable to meet performance demands
(sets/reps/weight/ROM)
- Safety - poor technique = injury
Not recommended for less experienced
Circuit/interval
+ Flexibility to be specific to activity, muscle groups, energy systems
Rest (relief between) can be used to improve quality or add intensity
- Intended strength adaptations will not take place if the following are incorrect - Intensity, work:relief ratio correct
Plyometrics
+ Good for power - explosive and dynamic
Sport specific movements
High force recruits high number of muscle fibres
- Increased risk of injury
Eccentric muscle contractions cause muscle damage (DOMS) Pre-strength work essential before undertaking
Not for novices
Moderation essential to avoid injury
What are the 3 categories of long term physiological adaptation of strength
Muscle and connective tissues
Neural
Metabolic
All these changes lead to an increase in the force and speed of muscle contraction. Performance intensity is increased and fatigue is delayed.
Muscle and connective tissues adaptations due to strength training
Increased:
Muscle hypertrophy (size of muscle)
Muscle hyperplasia (number of fibres)
Size of myofibrils (contractile unit of the fibre)
Strength of ligaments and tendons
25-100% strength improvement in 6 months
Neural adaptations due to strength training
Increased:
Recruitment of motor units containing fast glycolytic and fast oxidative glycolytic fibres
Force of contraction of the agonist muscle, due to the strength reflex being delayed and so a reduction in antagonist muscle inhibition.
Metabolic adaptations due to strength training
Increased:
Anaerobic fuel stores : ATP, phosphocreatine and glycogen
Anaerobic enzyme activity : ATPase, creatine kinase, PFK
Tolerance and removal of lactic acid
PC stores
Assessing aerobic capacity
Working at a high percentage of VO2 max is a better indicator than VO2 max itself.
The anaerobic threshold is indicated by the percentage of VO2 max.
Anaerobic threshold -
Sedentary individuals - 50-60% of VO2 max
Elite endurance athletes - 85% of VO2 max
Aerobic capacity tests (what are the 2 types and tests & what are the 4 tests called)
Indirect or predictive tests - these estimate or predict a VO2 max based on the results of the test.
Direct test - these are accurate tests which directly measure the oxygen consumption and usage.
Queen college step test
Multi stage fitness test
12 minute cooper’s run
Direct gas analysis
Aerobic capacity tests : Queen college step test (describe & +/-)
Queen College Step Test :
A continuous three minute step test which uses heart rate recovery to predict VO2 max. Step up and down on a box (41.3cm). Step to a metronome (beat) – men 24 / Women 22 steps per min.
Heart rate is recorded 5s after completion for 15 secs (then multiplied by 4 to get BPM).
+ Sub maximal test, safe for elderly/health conditions
Standardised tables available to analyse results
Minimal equipment needed and cheap
- Only a predictive test not a measurement
Not specific to any sport
May disadvantage shorter athletes
Aerobic capacity tests : Multi stage fitness test (describe & +/-)
Multi-Stage Fitness Test :
It is an indirect (predicted) test and is a progressive maximal test. It involves a 20m shuttle run and the 20m run is timed by a beep, which progressively becomes shorter after each level (10-12 shuttle runs). The test ends when the athletes fails to keep up with 2 successive beeps or drops out. A level and shuttle number is recorders (e.g. 12.4). The score is then compared with standarised tables to estimate VO2 max for males and females.
+ Suitable for large groups
Minimal equipment needed and cheap
Standardised tables available to analysis results
- Exhaustive test - not suitable for elderly/health conditions
Only a predictive test not a measurement
Less suitable for non runners
Aerobic capacity tests : 12 minute cooper’s run (describe & +/-)
12 minute Cooper’s Run :
Continuous maximum intensity test measuring the maximum distance achieved around a 400m running track in 12 minutes to predict VO2 max.
+ Suitable for large groups
Minimal equipment needed and cheap
Standardised tables available to analyse results
- Exhaustive test - not suitable for elderly/health conditions
Only a predictive test not a measurement
Less suitable for non runners
Aerobic capacity tests : Direct gas analysis (describe & +/-)
Direct Gas Analysis :
This is a direct test measuring accurately VO2 max. It is the most valid and accurate method. A progressive run/cycle/row test to exhaustion where a performer wears a mask that measures the oxygen in the air breathed into the lungs comparing it to the measured oxygen being breathed out. The difference between the two figures is the consumed oxygen. When O2 levels in the expired air remain constant even when intensity rises the test is complete. They will have reached VO2 max and will finish the test working anaerobically.
+ Accurate, valid, reliable measurement
Can use bike, rower or treadmill so suits variety of athletes
- Expensive equipment so limited access
Exhaustive test not safe for elderly/health conditions
Fuel usage & energy systems for all 3 types of Strength
Elastic/explosive
Energy system = ATP-PC
Food/fuel = ATP & PC
Dynamic
Energy system = glycolytic
Food/fuel = glycogen/glucose
Endurance
Energy system = aerobic
Food/fuel = FFAs & glycogen/glucose
Explain Plyometrics in detail & example of jumping over a hurdle
Training incorporates jumps, hops, bounding type exercises to increase the speed at which a muscle concentrically shortens. Important for sports requiring explosive strength. (E.g. jumpers like triple jump, sprinters, throwers, volleyball, netball, basketball and racquet sports).
Eccentric contraction (caused by downward movement) stores elastic energy in the muscle. This can be called pre load.
This elastic energy is released when a concentric contraction occurs, making the upward phase of movement more powerful.
This only works if the transition between eccentric and concentric contractions are quick.
Explain the stretch reflex in relation to Plyometrics
- When landing or at the beginning of a movement such as a jump, the quadriceps muscle is quickly and eccentrically contracted to produce elastic energy.
2 This movement initiates the stretch reflex which is a protective mechanism. It produces a ‘recoil force’ to avoid injury.
3 The force from the stretch reflex plus the concentric force produced increases the overall strength and power in the resulting jump.
This type of training is of very high intensity and causes adaptations which help to increase strength. The neuromuscular system adapts to the overload by recruiting more motor units which then increases force production. It also becomes better at initiating the stretch reflex.
Apply the stretch reflex (Plyometrics) for stepping off a box and rebound jumping
- The athlete steps off the bench and lands two footed
- When landing the rectus femoris is quickly and eccentrically contracted
- The quick, eccentric contraction initiates the stretch reflex, a powerful elastic recoil reaction to prevent injury.
- When a concentric contraction immediately follows the recoil force from the stretch reflex is added to the concentric force and increases the overall strength, meaning the athlete can jump higher.
Evaluation of Plyometrics
+ significantly improves explosive strength
+ mostly lower body but exercises can be easily adapted for all body parts
- injury risk high due to speed of stretch
- eccentric stretch caused muscle tears/ DOMS
- only experienced good pre strength performers
- warm up & active recovery essential to limit/prevent exercise induced muscle damage/ DOMS
What are the specific Plyometrics (FIT) training guidelines
Frequency: 2-3 per week, 2 rest days between sessions
Intensity : med/high, at full speed, body weight or object
Time/duration : 2-6 reps, full relief (1-3 min), beginners = 40, expert = 200 contacts per session
What are the 3 aerobic training methods
Continuous training
Fartlek training
HIIT (high intensity interval training)
Whichever training method is to be used it is important that we overload the system at the appropriate intensity to ensure adaptations take place. By measuring the intensity of the activity we can ensure that we are within the correct training zone.
Measuring intensity of aerobic training
How do we measure intensity of aerobic training?
HR training zones. Our training zones will be a percentage of our maximum H.R. This is also known as the Critical Threshold (CT).
In order to bring about long term aerobic adaptations, training must be performed at an intensity which overloads the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Target heart rate and used to monitor training intensity and to ensure the correct type of structural adaptation occurs.
What are the guidelines for intensity of aerobic capacity
Guidelines suggest a HR above 65% of max is required to for aerobic adaptations to take place. Calculate basic training zones by using % of max. HR (220-age). However, the higher the HR % the more adaptations will take place, provided intensity is not too high (Anaerobic).
60 % = fat burning/general health/base endurance
70 % = aerobic zone (develop CV, resp systems)
80 % = improve lactic acid threshold
85% = lactic threshold
90+ % = speed
What is the Karvonen Method & why use it for aerobic capacity?
It takes in to account a measure of fitness (resting HR). This means that it accounts for different fitness levels not just age and means that training zones can change if fitness improves.
How to calculate critical threshold for aerobic capacity
Critical threshold = Resting HR + %( max HR – resting HR)
e.g. For a 17 year old with a resting HR value of 72 bpm.
We will do the equation based on 60% of max HR (remember at GCSE we used the figures 60 – 80% of max HR to signify the aerobic training zone).
60% intensity : CT = 72 + 0.6(203-72) = 72 + (0.6 x 131) = 151 bpm
80% intensity = 17j bpm
Aerobic Capacity: Continuous training
Steady state, sub- maximal work (typically running, cycling, swimming, rowing).
Prolonged period of time - minimum 20-30 mins.
HR should be above the Critical Threshold - 60% of max (using the Karvonen method).
The % will change depending on the individual fitness up to approx 80%.
Most suitable for long distance athletes or in pre- season
Aerobic Capacity : Fartlek training
Fartlek training involves varying the pace of the training between aerobic and anaerobic
The terrain could change in terms of the ground state - tarmac/grass/sand; to the gradient - flat ground to steep hills.
Ideal for activities where the athlete continuously changes work intensity such as team sports.
Will develop VO2 max and the recovery process (so important for team sport players to recover quickly from intense work)
Aerobic Capacity : HIIT
HIIT involves combining periods of work with periods of rest or recovery
Adaptable to different activities by adjusting the four components that interval training must contain: Work duration/distance, Work intensity, Rest/recovery duration and Number of work/rest intervals (Reps)
HIIT : Repeated periods of short duration high intensity work mixed with periods of recovery.
Intensity of HIIT : work intensity (90% + of HR max), recovery intensity (40-50% HR max)
Duration of HIIT : work duration (15-20 seconds), recovery duration (work:rest ratio 1:1 or 2:1), intervals are repeated to give a session length of 15-45 mins
Aerobic Capacity : Energy system & fuel
Although ATP and PC are the fuels used at the very beginning of any activity whether anaerobic or aerobic, the main fuels used for aerobic activity are glycogen (glucose) or Free Fatty Acids (FFAs).
They are broken down through the Aerobic system to produce ATP
Glycogen and FFAs provide the energy for aerobic activity, which one varies depending on a number of factors:
1. Duration and intensity of activity 2. Availability of glycogen and FFAs.
Glycogen is the main fuel for the first 20-40 mins of exercise.
A greater amount of fats are broken down after 20-45 mins.
Fats become the main fuel at this time as glycogen stores become depleted.
After approx 90min - 2 hours fats become the only fuel source as the glycogen is almost totally depleted.
If during the activity intensity rises to a point where OBLA occurs, the fuel source will switch to glycogen as fats cannot be broken down anaerobically.
After a period of aerobic training the body adapts. FFAs become a more major fuel source of energy production. This is known as glycogen sparing. This ‘saves’ the glycogen for use later in the activity, if required.
