PAPER 2 - Research Methods Flashcards
What is an INDEPEDENT VARIABLE ?
variable that is manipulated by the researcher
Give an example of an independent variable
pps consume either 0.5 units or 2 units of alcohol
What is a DEPENDENT VARIABLE ?
the variable that is measured
Give an example of a dependent variable
reaction time in a driving stimulator
What are EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES ?
a variable the might affect your DV - they are identified before the study
Give an example of an extraneous variable
room temp, time of day, task given
What are CONFOUNDING VARIABLES ?
type of extraneous variable that isn’t controlled and affect the DV
Give an example of a confounding variable
number of years driving
What is the OPERATIONALISATION of variables ?
how the variables are made measurable - drawing out the most important elements of the variables
Give an example of the operationalisation of variables
intelligence is a very broad term - to make it measurable we could use a specific intelligence test that measures certain elements of personality
What are DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS ?
when the pp works out how the researcher wants them to behave - can be conscious or unconscious - reduces internal validity
Name 2 ways of reducing demand characteristics
- use different pp in each condition (INDEPENDENT GROUPS)
- use SINGLE BLIND TECHNIQUE where the pp does not know which condition of the experiment they are assigned to
What are INVESTIGATOR EFFECTS ?
when the researcher influences the results
What are EXPECTATION EFFECTS ?
when a researcher is DEEPLY COMMITTED to achieving a particular outcome
Name one method of reducing investigator effects
DOUBLE BLING TECHNIQUE - where neither the pp or research know the aim and/or condition of the study
What are the 3 experimental methods ?
lab / field / natural
What are the 3 key features of a lab method ?
- direct manipulation of IV
- control
- randomisation
What are the STRENGTHS of a lab method ?
EASY REPLICATED - high control - able to check reliability
INTERNAL VALIDITY - easier to control confounding variables - able to establish cause and effect
What are the LIMITATIONS of a lab method ?
ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY - high levels of control - generalisability
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS - pp know they are being researched - reduces internal validity
What are the key features of a field method ?
- natural environment
- still an IV and DV
- attempt to control extraneous variables
- cause and effect can be established because pp is unaware they are observed
What are the STRENGTHS of a field method ?
ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY - behaviour is representative of everyday life - generalisable
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS - do not know they are taking part - increases internal validity
What are the LIMITATIONS of a field method
TIME CONSUMING - small amount of people at certain times - reduced population validity
CONTROL - may be uncontrolled extraneous variables - reduces internal validity
What are the key features of a natural method ?
- no control over IV
- pp already assigned to a condition of the IV
What are the STRENGTHS of a natural method ?
ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY - generalise
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS - increases the internal validity
What are the LIMITATIONS of a natural method ?
REPLICABLE - internal validity
CONTROL - not possible to predict everything - internal validity
What is a QUASI EXPERIMENT
use a pre-existing IV - one that exists e.g. character trait such as gender / age
What are the 3 types of experimental design ?
repeated measure
independent groups
matched pairs
What is a REPEATED MEASURE design ?
all the pp take part in each condition
What are the STRENGTHS of a repeated measure design ?
LESS PPS NEEDED
PPS VARIABLES AREN’T AN ISSUE
What are the LIMITATIONS of a repeated measure design ?
ORDER EFFECTS
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS
What is an INDEPENDENT GROUPS design ?
different pps take part in each condition
What are the STRENGTHS of an independent groups design ?
ORDER EFFECTS
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS
What are the LIMITATIONS of an independent groups design ?
PPS VARIABLES
LOST OF PPS NEEDED
What is a MATCHED PAIRS design ?
different pps take part in each condition but they are matched on characteristics e.g. gender / age
What are the STRENGTHS of a matched pairs design ?
PPS VARIABLES
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS
What are the LIMITATIONS of a matched pairs design ?
TIME CONSUMING
LOTS OF PPS NEEDED
How could you deal with the limitations of a repeated measures design ?
COUNTERBALANCING - complete conditions in different order to BALANCE OUT any differences
How could you deal with the limitations of an independent groups design ?
RANDOMLY ALLOCATE to condition
How could you deal with the limitations of a matched pairs design ?
PILOT STUDY - consider variables that could be used to match pps
What is the FATIGUE EFFECT ?
deterioration of performance across condition as the pp becomes tired or bored
What is the PRACTICE EFFECT ?
improvement across condition through familiarity of the task or environment
What is RANDOM ALLOCATION ?
(independent groups) - control pp variables - same chance of being allocated to either condition - names in a hat
What is COUNTERBALANCING ?
(repeated measure) - complete conditions in different order - balance out differences among pps
What is RANDOMISATION ?
presenting stimuli in a random order to avoid bias - methods may include tossing a coin
What is STANDARDISATION ?
pps have EXACTLY THE SAME EXPERIENCE - methods may include written instructions
What is a NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION ?
observing naturally occurring behaviours - natural setting
What are the STRENGTHS of a naturalistic observation ?
EXTERNAL VALIDITY - ecological validity
What are the LIMITATIONS of a naturalistic observation ?
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
What is a CONTROLLED OBSERVATION ?
researcher attempts to control certain variables - pps know they are being observed
What are the STRENGTHS of a controlled observation ?
CONTROL - able to replicate
What are the LIMITATIONS of a controlled observation ?
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
What is an OVERT OBSERVATION ?
in the open - pps aware they are being observed, nature + purpose
What are the STRENGTHS of an overt observation ?
ETHICS - easier to replicate
What are the LIMITATION of an overt observation ?
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS - reduces validity
What is a COVERT OBSERVATION ?
pps do not know they are being observed
What are the STRENGTHS of a covert observation ?
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS - increases validity
What are the LIMITATIONS of a covert observation ?
ETHICS
What is a PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION ?
observer joins in
What are the STRENGTHS of a participant observation ?
UNDERSTAND BEHAVIOUR - increases validity
What are the LIMITATIONS of a participant observation ?
DEVELOP RAPPORT - reduces objectivity
What is a NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION ?
researcher remains external
What are the STRENGTHS of a non-participant observation ?
OBJECTIVE - no investigator effects
What are the LIMITATIONS of a non-participant observation ?
VALUABLE DATA IS MISSED
What are BEHAVIOURAL CATEGORIES ?
how researcher operationalises - researcher knows what constitutes the behaviour being observed
Give an example of a behavioural category
if you were observing AGGRESSIVE behaviour, the researcher would need to know what constitutes as aggressive such as kicking, punching
What are the two SAMPLING PROCEDURES ?
event sampling
time sampling
What is EVENT SAMPLING ?
watching the event and recording every time a specific behaviour occurs
What is TIME SAMPLING ?
recording behaviour at set time intervals
What are the two self-report techniques ?
questionnaire
interview
What is a SELF-REPORT technique ?
allows pps to PROVIDE INFORMATION about specific thing relating to themselves
What is a QUESTIONNAIRE ?
printed series of questions used to gather opinions around a certain topic
Name methods that can be used to distribute questionnaires
post / telephone / internet
Is it important to get a large representative sample of questionnaires ? Why ?
yes - to make a generalisation
What is a CLOSED QUESTION ?
produce QUANTITATIVE data - ticking boxes / circling answers
What is an OPEN QUESTION ?
produces QUALITATIVE data - difficult to analyse - not restricted in available answers
What is a LEADING QUESTION ?
should be avoided - choice of wording suggests a certain answer should be given
What are the STRENGTHS of a questionnaire ?
SIMPLICITY - minimum of training - easy to analyse - researcher doesn’t need to be present
INTERPERSONAL VARIABLES - more likely to answer honestly - internal validity
What are the LIMITATIONS of a questionnaire ?
WORDING OF QUESTIONS - pps may interpret question wrong - leading questions may influence response - internal validity
RESPONSE RATE - 30% or less - appeal to those who like the research topic - population validity
What are STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS ?
- same questions
- same order
- useful of teams of interviewers
- comparisons can be made
What are SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS ?
- flexible in order
- flow more naturally
- personal response
- follow-up questions
What are UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS ?
- informal
- conversation about the topic
- interviewee largely in control
What are the STRENGTHS of interviews ?
ACCURATE DATA - rapport - more honest answers - ask for clarification - training reduces leading questions - internal validity
DETAILED DATA - open ended questions - clarify meaning - develop understanding
What are the LIMITATIONS of the interviews ?
HARD TO ANALYSE - qual. data - subjective - different researchers interpret data differently - reduces validity
INTERPERSONAL VARIABLES - reducing internal validity
What is a CORRELATION ?
relationship between two things
What are the correlation coefficient numbers ?
+1 perfect positive correlation
-1 perfect negative correlation
What is a POSITIVE CORRELATION ?
- as one variable increases so does the other
What is a weak positive correlation ?
r = +0.2
What is a strong positive correlation ?
r = +0.9
What is a NEGATIVE CORRELATION ?
- as one variable increases the other decreases
What is a weak negative correlation ?
r = -0.2
What is a strong negative correlation ?
r = -0.9
What is ZERO CORRELATION ?
no relationship between two variables
What figure would show zero correlation ?
r = -0.02 r = +0.06
What is the FIRST difference between an experiment and a correlation ?
E = manipulation of IV C = no deliberate change to any variable
What is the SECOND difference between an experiment and a correlation ?
E = DV is measured C = impact on one variable is not measured - comparison is made between 2
What is the THIRD difference between an experiment and a correlation ?
E = establish cause and effect C = cannot establish cause and effect
What are the STRENGTHS of correlations ?
DIRECTION - precise quantitative measure of the strength of the relationship - researcher knows whether to carry out experiment
STATISTICALLY ANALYSE - not all situations can be ethically experimented e.g. aggression
What are the LIMITATIONS of correlations ?
CAUSE AND EFFECT - may be third variable e.g. divorce is the reason a child is both aggressive and in day car - need to be careful when drawing conclusions
NONLINEAR RELATIONSHIPS - correlation might initially be positive but then become negative, the two relationships cancel each other out
What is CONTENT ANALYSIS ?
changing qualitative data into quantitative data using a coding unit (s)
What is a CODING UNIT ?
specific behaviours / words / phrases that you are going to count in the material
What is a TOP DOWN coding unit ?
decided BEFORE content analysis using pre-existing coding units
What is a BOTTOM UP coding unit ?
decided AFTER you have viewed the material
What are the STRENGTHS of content analysis ?
LARGE AMOUNTS OF QUALITATIVE DATA QUICKLY - more representative results
EASY TO TEST FOR RELIABILITY - inter-rater tests - more objective
What are the LIMITATIONS of content analysis ?
BIAS - researcher chooses coding units - reduces internal validity
MAY NOT BE ACCURATELY ANALYSED - behaviour that does not fit coding unit will be ignored - reduces internal validity