PAPER 2 - Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
What is INTROSPECTION ?
A
the examination or observation of one’s own mental and emotional processes.
2
Q
Who is Wundt ?
A
- father of psychology
- aim was to examine the structure of the mind
3
Q
What was Wundt’s APPROACH ?
A
structuralism
4
Q
What was Wundt’s TECHNIQUE ?
A
introspection
5
Q
What were the 2 major assumptions that introspection were based on ?
A
(1) all behaviour is seen as being caused (determined)
(2) if behaviour is determined, this it should be possible to predict how human being would behave in different conditions.
6
Q
What are the 2 WEAKNESSES of Wundt’s introspection technique ?
A
UNRELIABLE - relied on ‘non-observational’ response - not reliable reproduced by other researchers
NOT ACCURATE - lacks validity - we have little knowledge of the processes behind out behaviour.
7
Q
What are the 4 psychology goals ?
A
DESCRIPTION - tells us ‘what’ occurred
EXPLANATION - tells us ‘why’ it occurred
PREDICTION - identify conditions that will cause a behaviour to occur
CHANGE - apply psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behaviour
8
Q
What is a STRENGTH of the emergence of psychology as a science ?
A
reliance on OBJECTIVE SYSTEMATIC METHODS means that theories were tested rather than being accepted as true
9
Q
What is a WEAKNESS of the emergence of psychology as a science ?
A
by concentrating on objectivity we may focus more on controlling the situation rather than looking at how people behave in normal situation (ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY)
10
Q
What are the 5 approaches that explain behaviours ?
A
THE LEARNING APPROACH: behaviourist and SLT
COGNITIVE APPROACH : point of view of our mind
PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH: point of view of our unconscious and early childhood experiences
BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: point of view of genetics
HUMANISTIC APPROACH: point of view of self-image
11
Q
What is the FIRST ASSUMPTION that behaviourists believe ?
A
- psychology should be seen as a science
- supported by evidence
- objective and controlled observations
12
Q
What is the SECOND ASSUMPTION that behaviourists believe ?
A
- psychologists should study OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOURS
13
Q
What is the THIRD ASSUMPTION that behaviourists believe ?
A
- no FREE WILL
- ENVIRONMENT determines BEHAVIOUR
14
Q
What is the FOURTH ASSUMPTION that behaviourists believe ?
A
- when we are BORN our mind is TABULA RASA (blank slate)
15
Q
What is the FIFTH ASSUMPTION that behaviourists believe ?
A
- little difference in the learning between ANIMALS and HUMANS
- study animals generlaise to humans
16
Q
What is CLASSICAL CONDITIONING ?
A
- learning through association
- two stimuli (UCS) + (NS) - repeatedly paired
17
Q
What are the STRENGTHS of classical conditioning ?
A
EVIDENCE
- Watson and Rayner
- Little Albert
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
- systematic desensitization
- treat ANXIETY of phobias
18
Q
What is a LIMITATION of classical conditioning ?
A
DIFFERENT SPECIES, DIFFERENT SURVIVAL NEEDS
- Seligman
- preparedness
- associate if linked with survival
- cc isn’t always implemented
19
Q
What does the COGNITIVE APPROACH argue ?
A
internal mental processes should be observed
20
Q
What involvement do schema’s have on behaviour ?
A
contribute to how we perceive and have opinions on the world
21
Q
Who researched the schema theory ?
A
Bugelski and Alampay
22
Q
How did BUGELSKI and ALAMPAY study the schema theory ?
A
Group A - animals - activate animal schema - last image
- animal related
Group B - human - activate human schema - last image
- human related
23
Q
What are THEORETICAL MODELS ?
A
- one way to study INTERNAL PROCESSES
- information processing approach
- information flows through cognitive system
24
Q
What are COMPUTER MODELS ?
A
- comparing minds to computers
25
What is COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE ?
- how structures affect mental processes
| - Paul Broca = frontal lobe affects speech
26
Name 2 brain imaging techniques
fMRI and PET scans
27
What do brain imaging techniques do ?
identify activity in specific areas of the brain
28
What are the STRENGTHS of the cognitive approach ?
USES SCIENTIFIC & OBJECTIVE METHODS
- reliable, objective methods
- enables biological and cognitive approach to come together
- credible basis
USEFUL APPLICATIONS
- explain dysfunctional behaviours
- successful treatment
29
What is the WEAKNESSES of the cognitive approach ?
COUNTERARGUMENT
- too abstract and theoretical
- artificial stimuli = not represent everyday experiences
COMPUTER MODELS
- different programming between humans and computers
30
What would suggest that there is a genetic basis behind traits ?
if MONOZYGOTIC twins have a HIGHER concordance rate than DIZYGOTIC twins
31
How do we know that the environment has some effect on traits ?
concordance rate of MZ twins is not 100%
32
How are twin studies used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis ?
- comparing concordance rates
| - concordance rate = extent that both twins share the same characteristics
33
What is GENOTYPE ?
GENETIC CODE - 'written' in the DNA
34
What is PHENOTYPE ?
BEHAVIOUR and PHYSICAL STRUCTURE - arising from INTERACTION between their GENOTYPE and ENVIRONMENT
35
What is EVOLUTION ?
change in INHERITED CHARACTERISTICS over SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS
36
What is the mechanism behind biological evolution ?
natural selection
37
How does evolution affect behaviour ?
over successive generations - ADVANTAGEOUS BEHAVIOURS - passed on - widespread
38
What is 'SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST' ?
characteristics are inherited - compete for resources - those who survive reproduce - offspring have this good traits
39
What happened to PHINEAS GAGE ?
- metal bar through skull and brain
- little intellectual impairment
- personality change
40
What did the case study of Phineas Gage suggest ?
- damage to frontal lobes
| - this structure is involved in controlling behaviour
41
Who studied London taxi drivers ?
WOOLLETT AND MAGUIRE
42
How does NEUROCHEMISTRY affect behaviour ?
levels of neurotransmitters affect mood and mood and behaviour
43
What is the DOPAMINE HYPOTHESIS ?
schizophrenia results from an EXCESS of DOPAMINE - causes FIRING RATE to increase - transmits TOO MANY MESSAGES - causes symptoms
44
What does a more recent assessment of the DOPAMINE HYPOTHESIS suggest ?
too many DOPAMINE RECEPTORS rather than too much dopamine
45
Why do HORMONES do ?
cause PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTION - alerting its activity
46
Who studied the effects of hormones ?
CARRE ET AL - Canadian ice hockey team
47
What did CARRE ET AL find ?
- surge in levels of TESTOSTERONE - home stadium - energised players - defending home territory
48
What are the STRENGTHS to the biological approach ?
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
- objective measurement
- easily replicated
- credibility
REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS
- development of psychoactive drugs
- treat mental illness
- gain relief
49
What are the LIMITATIONS of the biological approach ?
CANNOT ESTABLISH CAUSE AND EFFECT
- never be completely sure that brain activity influences behaviour
DETERMINISM
- sees human behaviour as governed by INTERNAL BIOLOGICAL cases
- have no control over
50
What is humanistic psychology concerned with ?
explanations of healthy growth of individuals
51
Who led the research of humanistic psychology ?
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
52
What does humanistic psychology believe about FREE WILL ?
- we have free will
- rejects scientific models
- psychology should concern itself with SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE
53
What is Maslow's HIERARCHY OF NEEDS ?
- physiological needs at the bottom
| - self-actualisation at the top = PEAK EXPERIENCE
54
What is CONGRUENCE ?
ROGERS
- personal growth achieved through congruence
- more overlap between SELF-IMAGE and IDEAL-SELF
- issues in adulthood stem from childhood due to a lack of UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
55
What is PERSON-CENTRED THERAPY ?
- each person is best expert of themselves
- encourage to find OWN SOLUTIONS
- talk as openly as possible
- counsellor provides UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
56
What are the STRENGTHS of the humanistic approach ?
NOT REDUCTIONIST
- gain better insight into individual's behaviour
- qualitative methods
- holistic view
- more valid = meaning human behaviour = real life context
POSITIVE APPROACH
- offers refreshing and optimistic alternative
- sees people as free to work towards improving themselves
57
What are the LIMITATIONS of the humanistic approach ?
LIMITED APPLICATIONS
- not many real-life application other than the therapy
- abstract concepts
UNSTABLE CONCEPT
- adopts non-scientific approach
- difficult to study
- lack of empirical evidence to support theories
58
What does the PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH suggest ?
behaviour is the result of EARLY CHILDHOOD experiences and UNCONSCIOUS THOUGHTS and FEELINGS
59
Who was the founder of the psychodynamic approach ?
Sigmund Freud
60
What is the role of the unconscious ?
conscious mind = tip of the iceberg
unconscious mind = larger part
behaviour stems from the unconscious part - reveals itself through slips of the tongue
61
What did Freud believe about defence mechanisms ?
mind actively prevents traumatic memories - repression / denial / displacement
62
What are the 3 structures of personality ?
ID / EGO / SUPEREGO
63
What is the ID ?
PLEASURE PRINCIPLE - present from birth- immediate gratification
64
Give an example of the ID
if a person is hungry the id demands that they eat there and then
65
What is the EGO ?
REALITY PRINCIPLE - mediates between other two personalities
66
Give an example of the EGO
may delay gratifying the id until there is a more appropriate opportunity to satisfy its demands
67
What is the SUPEREGO ?
MORALITY PRINCIPLE - develops around age 4/5 - right or wrong - how we should behave
68
What is REPRESSION ?
MOTIVATED FORGETTING - threatening thoughts are pushed out
69
What is DISPLACEMENT ?
TRANSFERRING FEELINGS from a TRUE SOURCE onto a TARGET e.g. parent
70
What is DENIAL ?
REFUSING TO BELIEVE the situation is occurring
71
What are the 5 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES involved with PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ?
```
oral stage
anal stage
phallic stage
latency stage
genital stage
```
(OAPs Love Gravy)
72
What is the ORAL STAGE (0-1) ?
pleasure in the mouth - sucking / biting
73
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the oral stage ?
ORAL FIXATION - smoking / biting nails
74
What is the ANAL STAGE (1-3)
pleasure in the anus - control of bodily waste
75
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the anal stage ?
ANALLY RETENTIVE - perfectionist
| ANALLY EXPULSIVE - disorganised
76
What is the PHALLIC STAGE (3-6)
Oedipus and Electra complex - unconscious desire for opposite sex parent - identify with same sex parent
boys fear castration
girls suffer penis envy
77
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the phallic stage ?
PHALLIC PERSONALITY - reckless / possibly homosexual
78
What is the LATENCY STAGE (6-puberty)
sexual urges
79
What is the GENITAL STAGE (puberty onwards)
sexual desires - become conscious alongside onset of puberty
80
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the genital stage ?
difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
81
What are the STRENGTHS of the psychodynamic approach ?
EXPLANATORY POWER
- explains wide range of phenomenon
- demonstrated influence of childhood on adulthood
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
- used in hypnosis bringing unconscious to conscious
- could be considered inappropriate
82
What are the LIMITATIONS of the psychodynamic approach ?
UNSTABLE CONCEPTS
- hard to falsify - open to interpretation - very subjective - hard to tests
PSYCHIC DETERMINISM
- no behaviour is an accident - driven by unconscious forces
83
What is OPERANT CONDITIONING ?
how consequences influence behaviour
84
What is REINFORCEMENT ?
something in the environment that STRENGTHENS a behaviour making it more likely to occur
85
What is POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT ?
INCREASES the likelihood that the behaviour will be REPEATED - consequence is pleasant
86
Give an example of positive reinforcement
giving child praise for carrying out a good behaviour
87
What is NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT ?
INCREASES the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated - removing something unpleasant
88
Give an example of negative reinforcement
giving a crying child sweets to take away the crying
89
What is PUNISHMENT ?
DECREASES the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated - consequence is unpleasant
90
Give an example of punishment
giving a detention for not completing homework
91
What is POSITIVE PUNISHMENT ?
giving something unpleasant e.g. press-ups at badminton
92
What is NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT ?
removing something desirable e.g. being grounded
93
What are the STRENGTHS of operant conditioning ?
EMPIRICAL SUPPORT
- Skinner
- cause and effect
REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS
- token economy programmes
- prisons
- good behaviour is rewarded
94
What are the LIMITATIONS of operant conditioning ?
FREE WILL IN HUMANS COMPARED TO ANIMALS
- cant relate Skinner's research to humans
however. ..
- skinner argued free will is an illusion
MECHANISTIC VIEW OF BEHAVIOUR
- animals = passive responders
- humans = active responders
- learning theory may apply less to humans
95
What is the SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY ?
we learn indirectly by observing and imitating others
96
What is MODELLING ?
someone who is looked at 'role model'
| - can be live models or symbolic
97
What is IMITATION ?
copying of behaviour
| - determined by characteristics of models, ability to perform and consequences of behaviour
98
What is IDENTIFICATION ?
the extent that someone relates to a model
99
What is VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT ?
learning by looking at the consequences of a behaviour
100
What is the MEDITATION PROCESS ?
cognition involved prior to imitation
| - attention / retention / motor reproduction / motivation
101
What is ATTENTION ?
noticing the behaviour
102
What is RETENTION ?
remembering the behaviour
103
What is MOTOR REPRODUCTION ?
being physically capable / possible
104
What is MOTIVATION ?
has to be a reason for copying the behaviour
