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Question 1

What is the ultimate goal of Cognitive Neuroscience (CN)?

Answer 1

The ultimate goal of Cognitive Neuroscience is the scientific investigation of the relationship between the mind (mental functions and cognitive processes) and the brain (biological substrate).

Question 2

List some methods used in Cognitive Neuroscience studies.

Answer 2

Various methods are used in Cognitive Neuroscience studies, including wet and dry laboratories, neuropsychology (lesions and disorders), neuroimaging (registration of brain activity and structure), neuromodulation, genetics, and computer simulations.

Question 3

How is the brain’s structure organized?

Answer 3

The brain is composed of two hemispheres (left and right), each divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.

Question 4

Who first described the mind as being located in the brain, establishing the brain as the essential organ for all cognitive functions?

Answer 4

Alcamaeon of Croton is credited with first describing the mind as being located in the brain, establishing it as the essential organ for all cognitive functions.

Question 5

What is Descartes’ contribution to Cognitive Neuroscience, and how did he view the relationship between the mind and the body?

Answer 5

Descartes contributed the idea that knowledge comes from innate ideas (innatist) and proposed a dualism between the soul (free will) and the body (machine). He identified the pineal gland as the meeting point of the soul and body.

Question 6

Who is considered a pioneer in the study of the anatomy and function of the nervous system?

Answer 6

Thomas Willis is considered a pioneer in the study of the anatomy and function of the nervous system. He provided a detailed description of the brain and nervous system.

Question 7

What is the focus of Structuralism in psychology?

Answer 7

Structuralism, associated with Titchner, focuses on decomposing every conscious mental state into its elementary components through introspection to understand the mind as the sum of its components.

Question 8

What is the main focus of Functionalism in psychology, and who is associated with it?

Answer 8

Functionalism, associated with William James, studies how the mind works to allow organisms to adapt. It emphasizes mental activities related to acquisition, storage, organization, and evaluation of experiences.

Question 9

What is Psychophysics, and what did Weber and Fechner contribute to it?

Answer 9

Psychophysics studies how to measure the mind. Weber and Fechner contributed the concept of the just noticeable difference (JND) to measure the minimal amount of stimulus intensity change for a perceptual difference.

Question 10

What is Mental Chronometry, and what are some procedures used in its study?

Answer 10

Mental Chronometry involves using reaction times to study mental processes. Common procedures include simple reaction times, go/no-go tasks, and choice reaction times, ordered from faster to slower.

Question 11

What is Localizationism in the context of brain functions?

Answer 11

Localizationism posits that specific functions are performed in specific areas of the brain. It suggests that each brain region has a distinct function, and deviations from the standard structure can explain differences in personality, cognition, and intelligence.

Question 12

What is Phrenology, and who is associated with its development?

Answer 12

Phrenology, associated with Gall, involves observing bumps on the skull to infer cognitive capacity. Gall built a map of functions based on people with exaggerated traits, correlating cranial bumps with specific mental capacities.

Question 13

What is the main difference between Localizationism and Holism in the study of brain functions?

Answer 13

Localizationism suggests that specific brain areas have specific functions, while Holism proposes that mental functions are widely represented in the brain, and extensive lesions can cause few behavioral deficits.

Question 14

What was the outcome of the Paris Aphasia Debate in 1908, and who were the main figures involved?

Answer 14

The Paris Aphasia Debate featured Dejerine (localizationism) vs. Marie (holism), leading to a physical duel. Marie denied Broca’s theories, while Dejerine argued in favor of them, particularly regarding Broca’s area’s role in language.

Question 15

Who is associated with the Case of Phineas Gage, and what did this case contribute to the understanding of frontal functions?

Answer 15

The Case of Phineas Gage, initially described by Harlow, contributed to the understanding of frontal functions. Damasio’s later analysis suggested that Gage’s frontal damage influenced abstract representation of values and moral judgments.

Question 16

What is the leading hemisphere hypothesis, and how was it demonstrated in split-brain patients?

Answer 16

The leading hemisphere hypothesis suggests that hemispheres are not duplicates, with the left being dominant for language and the right for visual processing. Split-brain studies by Sperry and Gazzaniga demonstrated the superiority of the right hemisphere in certain functions.

Question 17

Who are some contributors to English Empiricism, and what is their perspective on thought and perception?

Answer 17

Contributors to English Empiricism include Hobbes, Locke, and Hume. They emphasize that experience shapes the mind and propose the idea of tabula rasa, suggesting that the mind is a blank slate.

Question 18

Who is considered the father of research on memory, and what was his perspective on the acquisition of knowledge?

Answer 18

Aristotle is considered the father of research on memory. He rejects the Reminiscence theory and focuses on experience, proposing that mental images are a copy of the outside reality, emphasizing learning through sensory experience.

Question 19

What did Hyppocrates and Galen contribute to the understanding of the relationship between physical functioning and individual character?

Answer 19

Hyppocrates and Galen linked physical functioning and individual character, introducing the idea of four personality types based on the prevalence of humors in the body. They associated balance with health and imbalance with disease.

Question 20

What did Plato contribute to Cognitive Neuroscience, and how does his Chariot Allegory relate to Freud’s tripartite model?

Answer 20

Plato used the Chariot Allegory to describe the soul, with the driver representing intellect and white and black horses symbolizing moral impulses and instincts, respectively. This is reminiscent of Freud’s tripartite model for the mind.

Question 21

What is the Innatist view of knowledge, and which philosopher is associated with the Reminiscence theory?

Answer 21

The Innatist view of knowledge, associated with Plato, proposes the Reminiscence theory. This theory suggests that all knowledge exists before birth and is learned by the soul in the Hyperuranion, with post-birth experiences as a way to retrieve this knowledge.

Question 22

What were Descartes’ views on knowledge and behavior, and how did they influence later psychological theories?

Answer 22

Descartes believed in innate ideas and dualism between the soul and the body. He saw behavior as attributable to reflexes, and his ideas influenced both Behaviorism and Cognitivism, comparing the mind to an information processing system.

Question 23

What did Thomas Willis pioneer in the study of, and how did he contribute to the understanding of the nervous system?

Answer 23

Thomas Willis pioneered the study of nervous system anatomy. He provided a detailed description of the brain, identified the cortex as the basis of cognition, and introduced the term Neurology.

Question 24

What is the significance of Wundt’s lab in Leipzig (1879), and what methodology did he use in his psychological studies?

Answer 24

Wundt’s lab in Leipzig (1879) marked the birth of modern psychology. He proposed a systematization of psychology, eliminating subjectivism, and used introspection as the main method in a rigorous experimental framework.

Question 25

What were the key ideas of Structuralism, and who is associated with its development?

Answer 25

Structuralism, associated with Titchner, focused on decomposing every conscious mental state into its elementary components through introspection. It aimed to understand the mind as the sum of its components.

Question 26

What were the main ideas of Functionalism, and how did it influence the development of psychology?

Answer 26

Functionalism, associated with William James, studied how the mind works to allow organisms to adapt. It focused on mental activities related to acquisition, storage, organization, and evaluation of experiences, influencing various schools of thought in psychology.

Question 27

What did Weber and Fechner contribute to Psychophysics, and what is the concept of just noticeable difference (JND)?

Answer 27

Weber and Fechner contributed to Psychophysics, introducing the concept of the just noticeable difference (JND), which measures the minimal amount of stimulus intensity change needed for a perceptual difference.

Question 28

What is Mental Chronometry, and what are some common procedures used in its study?

Answer 28

Mental Chronometry involves using reaction times to study mental processes. Common procedures include simple reaction times, go/no-go tasks, and choice reaction times, which are ordered from faster to slower.

Question 29

What is Localizationism, and how did it influence the understanding of brain functions?

Answer 29

Localizationism suggests that specific functions are performed in specific areas of the brain, forming a map where each region has a distinct function. It influenced the study of brain functions but has been challenged by later research.

Question 30

Who is associated with Phrenology, and what were some criticisms and contributions of this approach?

Answer 30

Phrenology, associated with Gall, involved observing bumps on the skull to infer cognitive capacity. It faced criticisms for its correlational methods but contributed to the early study of localizing functions in the brain.

Question 31

What were some arguments in favor of Holism, and who were the key figures in the debate against Localizationism?

Answer 31

Holism, supported by Flourens, emphasized the equipotentiality of the cortex, suggesting that mental functions are widely represented in the brain. Figures like Marie and Dax argued against Localizationism in debates such as the Paris Aphasia Debate.

Question 32

What was the significance of the Case of Phineas Gage, and how did later research reinterpret his condition?

Answer 32

The Case of Phineas Gage was significant in the study of frontal functions. Later research, such as Damasio’s, reinterpreted Gage’s condition, suggesting that he was more functional and socially adapted than initially described.

Question 33

What is the Leading Hemisphere Hypothesis, and how was it supported by split-brain studies?

Answer 33

The Leading Hemisphere Hypothesis proposes that hemispheres are not duplicates, with the left being dominant for language and the right for visual processing. Split-brain studies, such as those by Sperry and Gazzaniga, supported this hypothesis.

Question 34

Who were the key figures in the birth of Scientific Psychology, and what was the significance of Wundt’s lab in Leipzig?

Answer 34

The key figures in the birth of Scientific Psychology were Wilhelm Wundt, who opened the first lab in Leipzig in 1879. This marked the formal study of humans by humans and the beginning of modern psychology.

Question 35

What is the psychophysical parallelism, and how did Wundt use it in his studies?

Answer 35

The psychophysical parallelism, proposed by Wundt, suggests that mental and physical processes are parallel; they change together without a direct causal link. Wundt used this concept in his studies, such as measuring reaction times to understand the duration of mental processes.

Question 36

What were the main ideas of Psychophysics, and who were its key contributors?

Answer 36

Psychophysics studied how to measure the mind. Key contributors were Weber and Fechner, who introduced concepts like the just noticeable difference (JND) to measure the minimal amount of stimulus intensity change for perceptual differences.

Question 37

Who were some proponents of English Empiricism, and what was their perspective on the role of experience in shaping the mind?

Answer 37

Proponents of English Empiricism included Hobbes, Locke, and Hume. They believed that experience shapes the mind and promoted the idea of tabula rasa, emphasizing the role of sensory experience in learning.

Question 38

What did Wundt propose about the relationship between mental and physical processes in his psychophysical parallelism?

Answer 38

Wundt proposed the psychophysical parallelism, suggesting that mental and physical processes are parallel; they change together without a direct causal link. Studying one helps understand the other.

Question 39

What were the main procedures used in Mental Chronometry, and what did researchers aim to infer through the study of reaction times?

Answer 39

In Mental Chronometry, researchers used procedures such as simple reaction times, go/no-go tasks, and choice reaction times. The goal was to infer information about the content, duration, and temporal sequencing of mental operations through the scientific study of reaction times.

Question 40

Who is associated with the introduction of Structuralism, and what was the primary focus of this psychological approach?

Answer 40

Structuralism, associated with Titchner, focused on decomposing every conscious mental state into its elementary components through introspection. The primary goal was to understand the mind as the sum of its components.

Question 41

What was William James’ contribution to psychology, and how did it influence the development of Functionalism?

Answer 41

William James, associated with Functionalism, was the first to offer a formal psychology course at Harvard. His contributions emphasized studying how the mind works to allow organisms to adapt, influencing the development of Functionalism.

Question 42

What were some criticisms of Phrenology, and why did Gall’s lectures face opposition in the Kingdom of Austria?

Answer 42

Phrenology faced criticisms for its correlational methods, and Gall’s lectures were banned in the Kingdom of Austria due to being seen as materialistic and against religion.

Question 43

What was the Great Brain Debate in 1861, and how did it contribute to the reconsideration of Localizationism in academia?

Answer 43

The Great Brain Debate in 1861 involved a discussion between Gratiolet and Aubertin, leading to a reconsideration of Localizationism in academia. The debate contrasted holism and localizationism.

Question 44

Who is associated with the Paris Aphasia Debate in 1908, and what were the contrasting views presented during the debate?

Answer 44

The Paris Aphasia Debate in 1908 featured Dejerine (localizationism) vs. Marie (holism). Dejerine argued in favor of Broca’s theories, while Marie denied the role of Broca’s area in language.

Question 45

What did the Case of Phineas Gage contribute to the understanding of frontal functions, and how was it later reinterpreted by Damasio?

Answer 45

The Case of Phineas Gage contributed to the understanding of frontal functions. Damasio’s reinterpretation suggested that Gage was more functional and socially adapted than initially described.

Question 46

Who proposed the Leading Hemisphere Hypothesis, and what did it suggest about the dominance of hemispheres in specific functions?

Answer 46

The Leading Hemisphere Hypothesis was proposed by Jackson, suggesting that hemispheres are not duplicates. It proposed left dominance for language and right dominance for visual processing.