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radiography 1 > Neurology > Flashcards

Neurology Flashcards

1
Q

where are the rostral & caudal directions

A

rostral = angled up toward forehead
caudal= angled down toward neck

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2
Q

where are the dorsal and ventral directions

A

dorsal = above rostral caudal & rhs of brainstem
ventral = below rostral caudal direction and lhs of brainstem

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3
Q

what is the coronal plane

A

frontal plane

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4
Q

what is the sagittal plane

A

longitudal plane (separating left & right)

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5
Q

what is the diff. between neurons & neuroglia

A

neurons send and receive signals while neuroglia support & protect the neurons

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6
Q

what are the (5) functions of the nervous system

A

monitor the internal & external environment
monitor sensory input & initiate responses
regulate & coordinate internal environment
control mental activity
control muscles & glands

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7
Q

what organs are in the PNS

A

cranial nerves
spinal nerves
enteric plexuses in small intestine
sensory receptors in the skin

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8
Q

what is in the CNS

A

brain & spinal cord

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9
Q

what is contained within the brain & spinal cord (CNS)

A

neural tissue
connective tissue
blood vessels

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10
Q

describe & point to the 4 lobes

A

frontal, temporal, parietal & occipital are visible from the exterior surface
visible deep within the groove is the insular cortex/lobe

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11
Q

what is myleination

A

insulation like a cord

insulated for electrical forces to travel through the axon

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12
Q

what are cell membranes made of

A

phospholipids

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13
Q

what is the difference between demyelination and unmyelination

A

demyelination is a disease because it implies the myelination has been stripped off e.g. autoimmune disease like multiple sclerosis

Unmyelination is fine because about 5% of axons are unmyelinated

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14
Q

what is the difference between white & grey matter

A

grey matter contains the cell bodies of the neurons (unmyelinated)
white matter contains the myelinated axons

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15
Q

what is the function of the CNS

A

sensory data: internal & external
motor commands: control peripheral organs
higher functions: intelligence, memory, learning, emotion

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16
Q

what is conus medullaris

A

cone like structure where the spinal cord terminates

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17
Q

where does the spinal cord terminate (vertebrae numbers)

A

between L1 & L2 (12th rib)

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18
Q

how is the spinal cord different from the brain in terms of matter

A

the white matter is on the outside and they grey matter is on the inside because the neurons are travelling toward the brain

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19
Q

what is cervical enlargement

A

nerves of shoulders & upper limbs

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20
Q

what is lumbar enlargement

A

nerves of pelvis & lower limbs

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21
Q

what is conus medullaris

A

termination of spinal cord, cone like [finish this]

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22
Q

what is filum terminale

A

fibrous tissue (ligament) that runs down from conus medullaris to coccygeal ligament.

it’s like a bungee cord because it stops the vertical movement of the spinal cord off the coccyx

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23
Q

what is cauda equina

A

looks like a horse’s tail, nerve roots extending below conus medullaris

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24
Q

what is a collection of axons in CNS

A

tract

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25
Q

what is a nerve

A

collection of axons in PNS

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26
Q

what is the name for a collection of cell bodies in the CNS

A

nucleus (not the nucleus within a cell)

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27
Q

what is ganglia

A

collection of cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system

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28
Q

where do dorsal and ventral roots exit between successive vertebrae

A

through intervertebral foramen

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29
Q

explain the naming of the spinal nerves & numbers

A

31 spinal nerves

cervical region: 7, get their name from vertebrae caudal to them

thoracic region: get their name from the rostral vertebrae e.g. t1 below vertebrae t1, t2 below vertebrae t2

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30
Q

why are there 8 cervical nerves when there are only 7 cervical vertebrae

A

there is a nerve between c7 & t1 hence c8 because they get their names from the vertebrae caudal to them

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31
Q

what is a tract, and what are the names of 4 tracts

A

HONDA CRVS

C = CORTICO
R = RUBRO
V = VESTI
S = SPINO

  • corticospinal
  • spinothalamic
  • rubrospinal
  • vestibulospinal
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32
Q

what is in the PNS

A
  • nerves: cranial & spinal (12 & 31)
  • enteric plexuses in small intestine
  • plexus = nerves that come together & form network
  • ganglion
  • sensory receptors in the skin
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33
Q

what are cranial nevers

A

nerves that exit from the brain stem (they are peripheral).

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34
Q

diagram for branches of the nervous system

A
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35
Q

what are the branches of the spinal nerves

A

ventral root = contains axons of motor neurons

dorsal root = contains axons of sensory neurons

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36
Q

how do axons get their energy supply / oxygen

A

axons can’t store enegry so they recieve it from the large blood vessels (arteries) that serve the brain

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37
Q

how do axons get their energy supply / oxygen

A

axons can’t store enegry so they recieve it from the large blood vessels (arteries) that serve the brain

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38
Q

define nerve, and it’s more specific name

A

bundles of axons with connective tissues & blood vessels, aka peripheral nerves. they carry sensory information & motor commands in the pns

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39
Q

what are the functional divisions of the PNS

A

afferent = carries sensory info from PNS to CNS

efferent = carries motor commands from CNS to muscles & glands

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40
Q

what is the difference between an effector & a receptor

A

receptor = detects changes in environment, complex sensory organs e.g. ears & eyes, neurons & specialised cells

effector = responds to efferent signals, cells & organs

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41
Q

what is SNS and it’s functions

A

controls skeletal muscle contractions (voluntary & involuntary i.e. reflexes, not autonomic because it has a stimulus)

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42
Q

what is the motor division of the PNS

A

ANS = autonomic nervous system

contains visceral motor neurons that carry info from CNS to all other peripheral receptors e.g. glands, skin, muscle

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43
Q

what are the 3 ANS divisions

A

sympathetic = fight or flight, from thoracic & lumbar SpC (thoracolumbar)
T1 –> L2
increase heart rate, respiratory rate

parasympathetic = rest or digest from cranial nerves and sacral SpC (carniosacral)
C1 –> S4

enteric nervous system =

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44
Q

explain the role of the ganglia in the autonomic nervous system [EXAM Q]

A

there are pre and post ganglionic fibres

the pre fibres are short, while the post are very long in the sympathetic nervous system so they can travel all the way to the organ

in the parasympathetic, the pre ganglionic fibres are very long, while the post are very short

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45
Q

when neurons exchange info and the membranes fuse together are the synaptic vesicles released?

A

no, only the neurotransmitters are released

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46
Q

how are nerve pain signals blocked

A

administering a small amount of anaesthetic

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47
Q

what are dermatomes

A

bilateral region of skin monitored by specific pair of spinal nerves

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48
Q

what is the diff. between pre & post synaptic cells

A

pre = neuron bringing information
post = neuron receiving information
synapse = point of info. exchange

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49
Q

what is the synaptic cleft

A

the gap between two synaptic membranes where the neurotransmitters are released, and then bind to receptors on the post synaptic cells. if they don’t bind the information won’t be received.

it also contains enzymes to break down the neurotransmitter

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50
Q

what are the features of neurotransmitters

A
  • chemical messengers
  • released at presynaptic membrane
  • affect receptors at postsynaptic membrane
  • broken down by enzymes
  • reassembled at synaptic knob
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51
Q

what is an anaxonic neuron

A

can’t tell where the axon is, can only see cell body

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52
Q

what is a bipolar neuron

A

two poles from body, seen in retina

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53
Q

what is a unipolar neuron

A

sensory neurons in dorsal root ganglia, only one pole

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54
Q

what is a multipolar neuron

A

2+ processes, single axon, multiple dendrites

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55
Q

what are the 3 functional classifications of neurons

A

sensory, motor, inter

inter = ability to stop information from travelling to motor

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56
Q

what are the functions of sensory neurons

A

afferent neurons of the PNS i.e. they bring info into the CNS

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57
Q

what are the types of sensory receptors

A

based on stimulus:
- inter
- exter
- proprio = postition & movement of muscles & joints

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58
Q

what are afferent fibrres

A

sensory & ascending pathways

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59
Q

what are efferent fibres

A

motor & descending pathways

60
Q

what are the functions & types of neuroglia

A

CNS = astrocytes = regulate substances that reach CNS from blood e.g. blood brain barrier

they also regulate inflammatory processes by wrapping themselves around blood vessels

CNS = ependymal cells = cerebrospinal fluid

CNS = microglia = clean up debris, waste, pathogens

CNS = oligodendrocytes = myelinate axons of CNS neurons

61
Q

what is the choroid plexus

A

a collection of ependymal cells (CNS) that secrete cerebrospinal fluid

62
Q

what are ependymal cells

A

cell that lines the brains ventricles (holes) to take blood vessels and squeeze out blood to make cerebrospinal fluid

63
Q

what are microglia

A

type of neuroglia that cleans up cellular debris. the only cell that can move in the nervous system.

their chemicals can impede the regeneration of axons

64
Q

what are oligodendrocytes

A

type of neuroglia that myelinate CNS axons
one can myleinate multiple axons

65
Q

explain nodes vs internodes

A

internodes are myelinated segments of an axon

nodes are the gaps between internodes for conduction of messages between the neuron

66
Q

what are schwann cells

A

cells that myelinate axons in the PNS. only myelinates one segment of one axon

67
Q

name the ventricular system of the brain

A

picture

68
Q

name the ventricular system of the brain

A

picture

69
Q

95% of sensory information is filtered by the?

A

thalamus. if it let this information through it would result in information overload

70
Q

what are basal nuclei, their functions & input/outputs

A

4 subcortical nuclei the sequence movement (don’t start or stop)

the death of a basal nuclei results in parkinson’s disease, huntington’s, some forms of cerebral paulsy

input = cortex
output = via thalamus to prefrontal, premotor & motor cortex

71
Q

what is the limbic system

A

a functional grouping of:
- emotional states
- linking of conscious functions of cerebral cortex with autonomic functions of brain stem
- memory storage & retrieval

72
Q

what are the components of the limbic system

A

amygdaloid body
limbic lobe
fornix
anterior nucleus
reticular formation
hypothalamus

73
Q

what is unique about the brain from a coronal or horizontal view of the brain

A
74
Q

are neurons mytotic

A

no

75
Q

why do we lose neurons

A

we don’t use all of them, so they are discarded ~ 18 months

76
Q

what is an axon

A

conducting region of a neuron
only one per neuron

77
Q

how many body systems do we have

A

10, 11 with the integument

78
Q

what body system communicates with all other systems

A

nervous system

79
Q

what organelles are in neurons & what is the function of each

A

mitochondria: respiration & energy production
rough endoplasmic reticulum: synthesises lipids to create proteins
golgi apparatus: modifies and sorts proteins & lipids made in the endoplasmic reticulum –> looks like a stack of pancakes

80
Q

what is exocytosis

A

release of proteins from the cell membrane

81
Q

what is synapse

A

when one neuron communicates with another neuron

82
Q

what is the purpose of dendrites & dendritic spines

A

dendrites are for synapse with other neurons & dendritic spines increase the surface area for communication

83
Q

what are synaptic terminals

A

knobs that secrete neurotransmitter chemical

84
Q

why are there grooves and bumps in the brain

A

they increase surface area to store all the neurons
groves = sulcus
bumps = gyrus

85
Q

where is the central sulcus

A

top of the brain from a lateral view

86
Q

what is a fissure

A

point where you can separate two parts e.g. the lateral fissure to separate both parts of the brain

87
Q

what is corticospinal

A

tract from cortex to spinal cord

88
Q

what is spinothalamic

A

tract from spinal cord to thalamus

89
Q

label the thoracic cross-section of the spinal cord

A
90
Q

in the spinal cord, where are the somatic motor neurons

A

anterior

91
Q

in the spinal cord, where are the autonomic motor neurons

A

lateral

92
Q

what is contained within the spinal nerve

A

sensory neurons, autonomic neurons & somatic motor neurons

93
Q

what is the dorsal root innervated by [& LABEL DIAGRAM]

A

sensory neuron

94
Q

what is the ventral root innervated by [& LABEL DIAGRAM]

A

autonomic & somatic motor neuron

95
Q

what are (spinal) meninges & their layers

A

meninges surround the spine & brain continuously

they are forms of connective tissue

pathologies = meningitis

3 layers:
outer = dura mater = toughest
middle = arachnoid mater = spider web like network
inner, stuck and has to be peeled = pia mater

96
Q

what are denticulate ligaments

A

ligaments that look like teeth holding the spinal cord in place laterally

97
Q

what is the subdural space?

A

space between dura mater and arachanoid mater

98
Q

explain the importance of interneurons

A

most are located in brain, spinal cord & autonomic ganglia

they are responsible for distribution of sensory information (if it should be distributed) and coordination of motor activity

they are also involved in higher functions such as memory, planning & learning

99
Q

what is the name for gaps between axons myelinated by Schwann cells, and the purpose of these gaps

A

nodes of Ranvier

regulate the speed at which the signal can travel down an axon (action potential)

100
Q

what is the normal colour of cerebrospinal fluid

A

clear, cloudy indicates bacterial meningitis

101
Q

where is a lumbar puncture and where is it taken

A

extraction of cerebral fluid, taken from L3-L4 to avoid the spinal cord

102
Q

what does cerebrospinal fluid look like in an MRI

A

white

103
Q

what is the purpose of cerebrospinal fluid and what is it’s process of flowing through ventricles

A

cushions the brain & spinal cord & provides nutrients

flows from lateral ventricles

104
Q

what would happen if there was a block in the inter-ventricular foramen?

A

it’s an emergency and will cause a build up in the lateral ventricle. can cause permanent damage

105
Q

[EXAM Q]
is it true that the limbic system links conscious functions of the cerebral cortex with autonomic functions of the brain stem

A

true e.g. the voice example from holsinger

106
Q

what does the amygdaloid body in the limbic system do

A

interfaces limbic system with cerebrum & sensory systems

107
Q

where do the releasing factors of the hypothalamus go

A

the pituitary gland

108
Q

what is reticular formation

A

stimulation or inhibition affects emotions

109
Q

what is the function of the hypothalamus

A

controlling functions such as hunger, thirst, emotions, body, temperature etc

110
Q

what does the fornix do

A

links the hippocampus to the hypothalamus

111
Q

what does the hippocampus do

A

consolidates information from short term to long term memory e.g. associated with dementia & alzheimers

112
Q

what is the purpose of the superior colliculs

A

preliminary visual processing & control of eye movements

113
Q

what is the purpose of the inferior colliculs

A

auditory processing

114
Q

does the tegmentum run from the mid brain to the medulla

A

yes

115
Q

why is substantia nigra black

A

pigmented grey matter

116
Q

what are cranial nerves 1 & 2 myelinated by that is different from the other 10 nerves

A

they’re myelinated by oligodendrocytes while the others are myelinated by Schwann cells

117
Q

[EXAM Q] what is the purpose of cerebral peduncles vs cerebella penduncles

A

The cerebral peduncle of midbrain connects the cerebrum with the brainstem (mainly, pons), while the cerebellar peduncle connects the cerebellum with the brainstem (mainly, pons)

The main function of the cerebral peduncle is to transfer motor signals from the brain down to the brainstem.

The cerebellar peduncles contain the afferent and efferent tracts of the cerebellum. The inferior cerebellar peduncle contains four afferent tracts (posterior spinocerebellar, vestibulocerebellar, olivocerebellar and reticulocerebellar) and one efferent tract (the cerebellovestibular tract). The middle cerebellar peduncle is the largest and contains only afferent fibres from the pontine nucleus. This pontocerebellar tract provides an important connection between the cerebral cortex and cerebellum and modulates skilled activities of hands and fingers. The superior cerebellar peduncle contains one afferent, anterior cerebellar tract and one efferent tract from the cerebellar nuclei to the red nucleus, thalamus and medulla.

118
Q

[EQ] what do the pons link

A

linke cerebellum with mesencephalon, diencephalon, cerebrum & spinal cord

119
Q

[EQ] what do the descending tracts do

A

carry motor commands from higher centres to nuclei of cranial/ spinal nerves

120
Q

[EQ] what do the ascending tracts do

A

carry sensory info from the brain stem nuclei to the thalamus

121
Q

[EQ] what do the transverse fibres do

A

interconnect cerebellar hemispheres

122
Q

[EQ] what do the apneustic & pneumotaxic centres do

A

adjust activities of the respiratory rhythmicity centres in the medulla oblongata

123
Q

[EQ] what do the cranial nerve nuclei do, and what nerves are they

A

V, VI, VII, VIII (part)

relay sensory info & somatic motor commands

124
Q

[EQ] what do other nuclei/relay centres in the grey matter do

A

relay sensory & motor info to the cerebellum

125
Q

what does the medullary reticular formation contain

A

cell groups that influence hr and respiration

126
Q

what does a leison in the right pons cause

and what does a leison in the left pons cause

what happens if it’s on the spinal cord

A

motor weakness on the lhs of the body

left pons affects rhs of the body

then it’ll be on the same side (ipsilateral), but in the brain stem or brain they’ll be contralateral

127
Q

how many pairs of spinal and cranial nerves

A

31/12

128
Q

what are the classes of cranial nerves

A

sensory, special sensory, motor, mixed (like spinal they have sensory & motor)

129
Q

what is another name for the posterior column pathway and what does it do

A

dorsal column

carries sensations of fine touch, pressure, vibration & proprioception

130
Q

what information synapses at fasciculus gracilis and where do the neurons go

A

sensations from inferior half (below T6)

synapse on second order neurons which go to opposite side of spinal cord (left) to the thalamus

then they synapse on 3rd order neurons that carry information to the sensory cortex

131
Q

what info synapses at fasciculus cuneatus

A

superior half sensations (T6+)

132
Q

what does the anterolateral pathway do & what are the paths of it’s neurons

A

provides conscious sensations of poorly localised crude touch, pressure, pain, temperature

1st, 2nd 3rd order

1st synapse immediately and crossover immediately, then travelling to thalamus, seperate pain and temp neurons

133
Q

considering the posterior column pathway and the lateral spinothalamic tract, what would happen if there was a leison on the RHS of the spinal cord

A

fine touch would be lost because the 1st order neurons in the posterior column pathway travel a while up the rhs before synapsing, whereas crude temperature & pain will still be felt because the neuros in the lateral spinothalamic tract cross over to the lhs immediately and synapse immediately. but pain and temp from the lhs will not get through

134
Q

what is the diff in neuron numbers for the ascending and descending systems

A

ascending = 3 neuron system
descending = 2 neuron system

135
Q

is the cerebellum an automatic or autonomic processing centre

A

automatic

136
Q

what is ataxia

A

cerebellum

damage from trauma or stroke, temporary disturbance from intoxication, disturbs muscle coordination

lack of coordination in muscle movements

137
Q

what is dysmetria

A

cerebellum

loss of ability to gauge distance, speed, power of movement resulting in over/undershooting

138
Q

what is decomposition of movement

A

cerebellum

disturbs fluidity of movement

139
Q

how much time of lost blood flow results in irreversible neuronal damage

how long for neurological symptoms

A

2.5-3 minutes (neurons are post mytotic & don’t divide)

20 sec

140
Q

what are the main arterial blood supplies

A

ica = internal carotid artery = forebrain
ba = vertebral artery = occipital, brain stem, cerebellum

141
Q

what is the path from the aorta to ICA

A

aorta –> common carotid –> internal carotid (for brain) & external carotid at about C4 –> branches

branches = hypophyseal, ophthalmic, anterior choroidal artery, posterior communicating artery

142
Q

what is the path from the aorta to the VA

A

aorta –> subclavian –> vertebral

143
Q

what vertebrae have the transverse foramen for arterial blood supply

A

cervical vertebrae 1 - 6

144
Q

what is the circle of willis

A
145
Q

what are cerebrovascular accidents

A

strokes = blood loss from the brain

146
Q

what causes strokes/ cerebrovascular accidents

A

ischemia
arterial embolism
hemmorrhage

147
Q

how do strokes occur

A

suddenly or in a step wise manner e.g. mini stroke via ischemia, resolves by itself, <24hrs, but indicative of a larger stroke

radiography 1 (13 decks)

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