nervous systems

Question 1

What is a nervous system required to do?

Answer 1

produce effective responses to a stimulus from the environment

Question 2

Where are interneurones?

Answer 2

between neurones and form a connection with other neurones

Question 3

What do interneurones do to synapses?

Answer 3

increases the number of them

Question 4

What is a hydra?

Answer 4

a freshwater invertebrate

Question 5

What is the nerve system of a hydra?

Answer 5

a simple nerve net with no central nervous system

Question 6

In what directions does the hydra conduct action potentials?

Answer 6

in all directions

Question 7

What is the movement of a seas anemone?

Answer 7

slow but coordinated movements of polyps, tentacles for catching prey

Question 8

What is the nervous system of a jellyfish?

Answer 8

more complex nerve nets - spontaneous rhythmic activity

Question 9

How do jellyfish propel themselves forward?

Answer 9

contractions of the margin of the bell (umbrella shaped part) produce a propulsive force forward

Question 10

What is the nervous system of star fish?

Answer 10

a modified nerve net with control of limb movements coordinated by the neural ring - the radial nerves can control the movement of each limb individually

Question 11

What does the evolution of bilaterality lead to?

Answer 11

cephalisation

Question 12

What are the consequences of cephalisation?

Answer 12

increase in the number of nerve cells, concentration of nerve cells into ganglia, ganglia into brains, nerves into nerve cordds

Question 13

What is a segment?

Answer 13

a unit of anatomical structure that can be repeated along the length of an animal

Question 14

What are the consequences of segmentation?

Answer 14

development of segmental ganglia with sufficient complex neural circuitry to control locomotion in individual segments, coordination of movement between adjacent segments

Question 15

What type of nervous system do arthropods have?

Answer 15

autonomic nervous system which innervates the viscera of the body. they also have ganglia joined by connecting nerves

Question 16

How do arthropods coordinate movement?

Answer 16

receive sensory information from a body segment, activate dorsal/ventral muscles appropriately, use central pattern generators (CPGs), interconnections between ganglia propagate activity along length of animal

Question 17

What does the CNS develop from?

Answer 17

the neural tube

Question 18

What are large areas devoted to in lower vertebrate brains?

Answer 18

olfaction

Question 19

What are some key features of mammalian brains?

Answer 19

folding of the cortex, development of six layered neocortex, enlargement of cerebellum, reduction of olfactory system

Question 20

What is white matter?

Answer 20

myelinated axons

Question 21

What is grey matter?

Answer 21

collection of cell bodies

Question 22

What are laminae?

Answer 22

layers of the cortex

Question 23

What are CPGs?

Answer 23

network of neurones which produce rhythmic behaviours

Question 24

What are brainstem locomotor command centres controlled by?

Answer 24

basal ganglia in the cerebral hemisphere

Question 25

What is the Mauthner neurone?

Answer 25

a pair of neurones involved in fish escape behaviours that are essential for survival. 'startle response'

Question 26

Where are the M-neurones?

Answer 26

on either side of the brainstem

Question 27

What was the evolution of the cerebellum during the transition onto land?

Answer 27

vestibulocerebellum - balance. spinocerebellum - body raised off ground. neocerebellum - connected to the cerebral cortex for motor coordination

Question 28

What are the four phases of the step cycle?

Answer 28

flexion (F), first extension (E1), second extension (E2), third extension (E3)

Question 29

What is the neuroanatomy of birdsong?

Answer 29

this is a complex interconnection of nuclei and tracts in the bird brain which control the syrinx to produce the song

Question 30

What nerves are in the peripheral nervous system?

Answer 30

cranial and spinal nerves

Question 31

What are the ascending sensory pathways?

Answer 31

dorsal column and spinothalamic

Question 32

Where is the dorsal column?

Answer 32

at the back of the spinal cord

Question 33

How is sensory information processed in the dorsal column?

Answer 33

by primary sensory neurones with the cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia

Question 34

Where do neurones cross over in the dorsal column?

Answer 34

medulla oblongata

Question 35

Where do the neurones cross over in the spinothalamic?

Answer 35

at the point of entry (L5) - synapses with another neurone to create a contralateral pathway

Question 36

Where does information pass up in the spinothalamic?

Answer 36

the thalamus

Question 37

What are LMNs?

Answer 37

lower motor neurones

Question 38

What are afferent to LMNs?

Answer 38

descending pathways

Question 39

What is the descending motor pathway?

Answer 39

corticospinal tract

Question 40

Where does the tract pass through in the corticospinal tract?

Answer 40

the pyramidal structures of the medulla and decussates

Question 41

What does the corticospinal tract have control over?

Answer 41

LMNs that innervate skeletal muscle

Question 42

What is somatotopy?

Answer 42

the orderly arrangement of the nervous system in relation to the parts of the body

Question 43

What applies to all mammalian brains?

Answer 43

they have topographic maps representing anatomic organisation, specific brain regions tend to have specialised functions, neural circuits are plastic, neurogenesis is confined to specific areas

Question 44

What is the association cortex involved in?

Answer 44

communication, memory, planning future behaviour, thought

Question 45

What are gyri?

Answer 45

folds on the surface of the brain

Question 46

What are sulci?

Answer 46

dips between gyri

Question 47

What are the functions of the cerebellum?

Answer 47

initiating, timing and terminating movements

Question 48

What does the cerebellum coordinate?

Answer 48

motor output

Question 49

What are areas of grey matter deep in the hemisphere?

Answer 49

basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus

Question 50

What are the basal ganglia?

Answer 50

a collection of nuclei which produce regulated movements

Question 51

Where are the major inputs of the basal ganglia received from?

Answer 51

cerebral cortex, thalamus, brainstem

Question 52

What do the major outputs from the basal ganglia go?

Answer 52

thalamus nerve, cortex, brainstem

Question 53

What does the thalamus do?

Answer 53

relays sensory pathways to cerebral cortex, activates the cerebral cortex, coordination of visual and motor activity

Question 54

What does the hypothalamus respond to?

Answer 54

physiological, environmental and emotional changes that affect the autonomous nervous system

Question 55

What system is the hypothalamus part of?

Answer 55

limbic system - involved in thirst, hunger, appetite

Question 56

What does the hypothalamus maintain?

Answer 56

homeostasis and neuroendocrine control

Question 57

What are the functions of the brainstem?

Answer 57

functional composition of cranial nerves III-XII, convey sensory information to cortex, convey motor control from cortex to motor neurones, regulation of ANS

Question 58

What is breathing controlled by?

Answer 58

medulla oblongata

Question 59

What is the ANS involved in?

Answer 59

sleeping, eating, thermoregulation, crying etc.

Question 60

What is the meaning of autonomic?

Answer 60

functions without you being aware

Question 61

What does the ANS do?

Answer 61

it innervates and therefore control the organs of the body

Question 62

What is the ANS known as?

Answer 62

the visceral nervous system

Question 63

What two efferent neurones are part of the CNS?

Answer 63

autonomic preganglionic neurone and autonomic postganglionic neurone

Question 64

What does the sympathetic nervous system consist of?

Answer 64

thoraco-lumbar outflows

Question 65

What does the parasympathetic nervous system consist of?

Answer 65

cranial and sacral components

Question 66

Which neurone is longer is the parasympathetic subdivision?

Answer 66

pre-ganglionic

Question 67

Which neurone is longer is the sympathetic subdivision

Answer 67

post-ganglionic

Question 68

What do all pre-ganglionic neurones release?

Answer 68

Ach

Question 69

What are the receptors on the post-ganglionic neurone of both the PNS and SNS?

Answer 69

nicotinic AChR

Question 70

What is the transmitter of the post-ganglionic neurone of the SNS?

Answer 70

noradrenaline

Question 71

What is the transmitter of the post-ganglionic neurone of the PNS?

Answer 71

Ach

Question 72

What are the receptors on target tissue of the SNS?

Answer 72

alpha or beta adrenergic receptors

Question 73

What are the receptors on target tissue of the PNS?

Answer 73

muscarinic AChR

Question 74

What are all pre-ganglionic neurones under the direct control of?

Answer 74

pathways descending from higher regions of the brain, in particular the hypothalamus

Question 75

Are post-ganglionic axons attached to cells of the target organs?

Answer 75

no as they may need to move in relation to them

Question 76

How many cranial nerve nuclei are there?

Answer 76

4

Question 77

What do the cranial neurones do?

Answer 77

control secretory glands in head and two intra-ocular muscles of the eye

Question 78

What do the sacral spinal cord S2, 3 & 4 nerves do?

Answer 78

the emptying nerves controlling the large bowels/anus, the bladder and erectile of the genitalia

Question 79

Where does the vagus nerve go?

Answer 79

from the head to the thoracic and abdominal cavities

Question 80

What are the vagus nerves?

Answer 80

the main nerves of your parasympathetic nervous system

Question 81

Where is the lateral horn of the spinal cord?

Answer 81

segments T1 - L2

Question 82

How do post-ganglionic axons reach target organs in the SNS?

Answer 82

by joining peripheral nerves or by running along arteries that supply the large organs

Question 83

How many possible routes are there for pre-ganglionic axons in the SNS?

Answer 83

three

Question 84

What causes the eye to contract?

Answer 84

short postganglionic fibres travel to the circular muscles of the iris to cause them to contract

Question 85

What does the sympathetic nervous system do in thermoregulation?

Answer 85

reflex increases sympathetic discharge sweat glands, reflex decreases sympathetic discharge to cutaneous blood vessels - vasodilation in skin