Module 2 - Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards
Plasma membrane
Separates the internal components of the cell from the surrounding environment
Essential to the life of the cell
Cytoplasm
Contains many suspended organelles, or cell structures
Medium for chemical reactions
Nucleus
Control center of the cell
Regulates cell activity
Houses genetic material
Nuclear membrane
Protects the nucleus, allowing in only specific materials
Nucleolus
Forms RNA and ribosomes
Mitochondria
Convert nutrients into energy for use by the cell/body; create adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Ribosomes
Protein synthesis for both internal and external use
Endoplasmic reticulum
Transports materials throughout the cell
Golgi apparatus
Packages and releases materials secreted by the cell for external use
Forms lysosomes
Lysosomes
Digest waste materials including damaged materials found in the cell, old cell components, and materials entering the cell
Centrioles
Participate in cell reproduction through the distribution of DNA to new cells
Cilia
Aid in the movement of substances along the surface of the cell
Flagella
Move the cell itself, through a whip-like motion
five cavities and internal organs of human body
- Cranial cavity: Within thes skull; houses the meninges (brain)
- Spinal cavity: Traveling down the midline of the back and formed by the vertebrea, this contains the spinal cord
- Thoracic cavity: Within the chest; houses the lungs, heart, and major vessels
- Abdominal cavity: Within the abdomen; houses several major organs such as the stomach, liver, gallbladder, and intestines
- Pelvic cavity: houses the bladder and reproductive organs
What are the 9 quadrants of the abdomen?
- right/left hypochondriac region
- epi/hypo gastric region
- right/left lumbar region
- umbilical region
- right/left iliac region
Skin functions
- protection
- temperature regulation
- excretion
- sensation
- vitamin D production
Describe the layers of the skin
- Epidermis layer: Outermost layer of epithelial tissue, covers the external surface of the body
- Dermis layer: Thick layer beneath the epidermis that contains arteries, veins, nerves
- Subcutaneous layer: Loose, connective tissue composed of adipose tissue and lipocytes
Sebaceous (oil) glands
Produce sebum to keep skin and hair soft and prevent bacteria from growing on the skin
Sudoriferous (sweat) glands
Produce sweat to aid in cooling the body
Axial skeleton
The adult axial skeleton has 80 bones, including the skull, vertebrae, and ribs.
Appendicular skeleton
The adult appendicular skeleton has 126 bones, including arms, legs, and pelvic girdle.
Skeletal muscle
Responsible for body movement; also called voluntary muscle or striated muscle
Smooth muscle
Found within the walls of hollow organs and blood vessels and in the iris of the eye; also called involuntary muscle
Tendons
Ends of skeletal muscles that attach the muscle to a bone
Where is the thymus located
posterior to the sternum
What is the largest lymphoid organ?
spleen
Difference bw b-cells and T-cells
B-cells: Type of lymphocyte that can recognize antigens and responds by turning into plasma cells
T-cells: Type of lymphocyte that can recognize antigens and attaches to them to attack the invading cells directly
Naturally acquired active immunity
occurs when a person has an infectious disease and then develops antibodies against the pathogen that caused the disease.
Artificially acquired active immunity
result of administering a vaccination. The antibodies are activated by the vaccine and develop memory to recognize the pathogen in the future.
Naturally acquired passive immunity
short-lasting immunity transferred through the placenta and breast milk.
Artificially acquired passive immunity
created by giving an exposed person antibodies containing blood products, as in an immune globulin.
3 layers of the heart
- epicardium (outermost layer),
- myocardium (middle layer, thickest)
- endocardium (inner layer)
right atrium
receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cava
left atrium
receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins
right ventricle
- Receives blood from the right atrium
- sends deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary valve.
- Then goes to the pulmonary artery and then to the lungs
left ventricle
- receives blood from the left atrium
- sends the oxygenated blood through the aortic valve to the aorta, and arteries that carry the blood to the body.
Kidneys
responsible for removing waste from the blood and producing urine
Ureters
tubes are responsible for carrying urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder
stores urine
Urethra
carrying urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body
sections of small instestine
- duodenum
- jejunum
- ileum
Large intestine
- colon
- completes absorption and forms feces from solid waste products.
What happens to the diaphragm when a person inhales and exhales?
Inhalation - chest expands, diaphragm contracts
Exhalation - chest contracts, diaphragm relaxes
Difference bw exocrine and endocrine glands
- Exocrine glands release hormones into a duct for delivery to the target cells.
- Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the blood stream
Steps of the cardiac cycle
- SA node generates an electrical impulse
- To the AV node and then the ventricular septum until it reaches the Purkinje fibers
- Ventricles contract and pump blood into pulmonary artery and aorta
Which of the body systems are primarily responsible for achieving and maintaining homeostasis?
nervous and endocrine
Cellulitis
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: swollen, red, and hot to the touch skin
- E: Bacteria (typically Streptococcus or Staphylococcus) enters the skin through cuts or abrasions and causes infection of connective tissue with severe inflammation of the skin.
- D: Physical exam, Wound culture and blood tests
- T: Resting the area, cutting away dead tissue prn, antibiotics
Dermatitis
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Red, itchy skin and Vesicular lesions/blisters (sometimes)
- E: caused by hereditary and environmental factors
- D: physical exam
- T: fragrance-free soap and moisturizers, steroid creams, and antihistamines
Skin cancer: basal cell
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Waxy bump or skin sore that does not heal within two months and continues to grow over time
- E: Damage to DNA of basal cells caused by UVB exposure
- D: Physical examination and biopsy. Early diagnosis is vital.
- F: Surgical excision. Liquid nitrogen freezing or curettage
Skin cancer: melanoma
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: irregular shaped with a diameter more than 1/4in
- E: Excessive exposure to UVB rays
- D: Physical examination and biopsy. Early diagnosis is vital
- t: Surgery and radiation
Sprain treatment
RICE
Rest
Ice
Compression
Elevation
Osteoporosis
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
S: no sx but can lead to increased fractures and back pain
E: malnutrition, inadequate calcium absorption, endocrine disorders, immobilization and lack of exercise, and aging.
D: Measuring bone mineral density using a DEXA scan
T: Medications can slow bone loss and reduce the risk of fracture.
Osteoarthritis
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Pain with movement in a specific joint. Stiffness in joint following periods of inactivity. inflexibility
- E: Autoimmune disorder that change connective tissues of the body, mostly joints
- Physical examination, blood tests, and imaging
- Physical therapy for mobility. Medication for inflammation and pain
Gout
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- s: Red, hot, swollen joint (mostly big toe)
- E: Excessive accumulation of uric acid in a joint, forming needle-like crystals in the joint
D: Aspiration of the joint to obtain and identify the crystals
T: Anti-inflammatory medications and dietary adjustments
Muscular dystrophy
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- s: Chronic and progressive muscle weakness leading to eventual paralysis of muscle groups
- E: Inherited or spontaneous genetic mutation
- D: Patient history, physical exam, muscle enzyme tests, electromyography, muscle biopsy, and genetic testing
- T: Physical therapy, ambulatory devices, and medications to alleviate symptoms
Myopathy
Sx, Etiology, Treatment
- S: Muscle weakness, cramps, stiffness, spasms, and tetany
- E: Can result from many different disease processes
- T: Physical therapy, medication therapy, support bracing, surgery, and massage all may help.
Myalgia
Sx, Etiology, Treatment
- S: Muscle pain (broad term)
- E: Traumatic injury. Viral infection. Overuse or overstretching of muscle group. Medications and vaccines
- T: massage, heat or cold therapy, and medication for pain and muscle relaxants
Repetitive Stress Disorder (RSD)
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Pain, tingling, numbness, swelling. Redness, loss of flexibility and muscle weakness
- E: Repetitive tasks, forceful exertions, vibrations, and mechanical compression
- D: Physical examination, patient history, and imaging
- T: Early treatment: Anti-inflammatory medications, rest, splinting, and massage, or Surgery (severe case)
Shin splint
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Pain and swelling in the lower leg
- E: Repeated stress of the tibia and connective tissues
- D: Physical examination and patient history
- T: RICE or Surgery
Atherosclerosis
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- s: Chest pain, transient ischemic attacks (TIAs), peripheral artery disease, and kidney disfunction
- e: Hardening of the arteries potentially due to high bp, high cholesterol, smoking, diabetes, and other diseases
- D: blood tests, doppler ultrasound, EKG, stress test, angiogram, CT or MRI
- T: Healthy diet, increased exercise, medications (cholesterol medication, beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, blood thinners, diuretics, calcium channel blockers), angioplasty, stents, endarterectomy, or bypass surgery
Congestive heart failure
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Fatigue, peripheral edema, shortness of breath
- E: heart’s decreased ability to pump adequately due to coronary artery disease, high bp, cardiomyopathy, valvular disease, or heart defects
- D: Medical history, physical examination, blood tests, EKG, echocardiogram, and chest x-ray
- T: weight loss, controlling bp, ACE inhibitors, and beta blockers
Hemophilia
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Excessive bleeding, frequent bruising
- e: absence of clotting factors in the blood as the result of a genetic defect
- D: Family history, physical examination, and blood tests
- T: Replacement therapy to slowly infuse clotting factors into a vein
Acute renal failure
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Decreased urine output, fluid retention, fatigue, shortness of breath, confusion, and nausea
- e: Direct damage to the kidneys or other causes leading to kidneys no longer filtering blood
- D: Observation of urine output, blood tests, urinalysis, and other imaging
- T: medications, and hemodialysis
Chronic renal failure
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: early = no sx. Later stages: High bp, feeling ill and fatigued
- e: kidneys cannot adequately filter blood due to many diabetes, high bp and glomerulonephritis
- D: blood tests
- T: controlling bp and hemodialysis (severe cases)
Renal calculi (kidney stones)
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Severe episodes of back and side pain, pain with urination. Dark or foul-smelling urine, nausea, frequent urination, fever, chills
- e: Hard crystalline deposits forming in the urine due to high levels of substances
- D: Blood tests, urine tests, and imaging
- T: water, pain relievers, and shock wave therapy
Urinary incontinence
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Leakage of urine
- e: Loss of bladder control
- D: Urinalysis, medical history, physical examination
- T: Kegel exercises to strengthen muscles that control the bladder or surgery
Appendicitis
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Pain in the lower, right abdomen, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal swelling, fever
- e: Inflammation in the appendix due to blockage of the opening to the appendix
- D: Pt history, blood and urine tests, imaging
- T: Surgical removal of the appendix
Celiac disease
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Anemia, diarrhea, gas, bloating, weight loss, fatigue
- e: triggered by gluten leading to damage of the small intestine and an inability to absorb nutrients
- D: Physical examination, medical history, blood tests, antibody tests, and endoscopy with biopsy
- T: Avoid gluten in any form
Colorectal cancer
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: no sx (early) fatigue, irregular bowel movements, blood in feces, cramps, bloating, and weight loss.
- e: Risk factors are a high-fat diet, family history, and inflammatory bowel disease
- D: Colonoscopy or barium enema
- T: Early stages: Surgical removal of cancer cells
Advanced stages: Chemotherapy
Diverticulosis
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: when inflammed pain in lower left abdomen, fever, chills, nausea, and vomiting.
- e: Pouchlike herniations through the muscular wall of the colon caused by high pressure inside the colon
- D: colonoscopy
- T: antibiotics
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Heartburn, nausea after eating, difficulty swallowing
- e: Lower esophageal sphincter muscle disfunction
- D: Upper endoscopy (measure acid in esophagus)
- T:Lifestyle/dietary changes, antacids or Surgery (severe cases)
Acute respiratory distress (ARDS)
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Shortness of breath, low blood pressure, and rapid breathing (following an injury)
- e: Fluid buildup in the alveoli blocks oxygen from passing into the bloodstream following an acute injury
- D: Arterial blood gas analysis, chest x-ray
- T: Oxygen therapy, mechanical ventilation, and antibiotics
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Chest tightness, productive cough, wheezing, shortness of breath with activity
- e: airflow into and out of the lungs is blocked, usually due to a combination of bronchitis and emphysema. cause by smoking
- D: pulmonary function tests, chest x-ray, and CT scan
- T: Smoking cessation, medication, and oxygen therapy
Rhinitis
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Sneezing, coughing, runny nose, watering eyes, pressure in ears
- e: Irritation and inflammation of the mucous membrane in the nose, along with excessive production of mucus
- D: Physical exam or Allergist
- T: Antihistamines and corticosteroids
Sciatica
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: dull ache or sharp, burning Pain radiating from lumbar spine to the buttocks and down the back of the leg
- e: Occurs from compression of the sciatic nerve, typically due to a herniated disc, bone spur, or tumor
- D: Medical testing of muscle strength and reflexes and imaging
- T: Muscle relaxants, anti-inflammatory medications, physical therapy, corticosteroids
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA; stroke)
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: (FAST) Facial muscle weakness, Arm droop, Speech abnormalities, and time
- e: Caused by a decrease in blood supply to the brain or a rupture of a blood vessel in the brain
- D: Neurologic examination, CT or MRI scan, Doppler ultrasound or arteriography
- T: restoring blood to the brain or reducing pressure on the brain
Shingles
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Blisters and pain on the skin in a bandlike pattern that follows the path of the affected nerves
- e: Caused by the varicella zoster virus
- D: History, location of pain, and pattern of rash
- T:Antiviral medications increase rate of healing & pain relievers
Type 1 diabetes mellitus
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Excessive thirst, frequent urination, extreme hunger, weight loss, fatigue, blurred vision, poorly healing wounds, numbness in hands and feet
- e: Chronic condition caused by lack of insulin production. genetic, autoimmune condition
- D: Blood tests to evaluate glucose metabolism
- T: Monitoring blood sugar levels, insulin therapy, eating a healthy diet, and managing weight
Type 2 diabetes mellitus
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Excessive thirst, frequent urination, extreme hunger, weight loss, fatigue, blurred vision, poorly healing wounds, numbness in hands and feet
- e: Chronic condition caused by insulin resistance, due to a mix of genetics, obesity, and lifestyle choices
- D:Blood tests to evaluate glucose metabolism
- T: Monitoring blood sugar levels, eating a healthy diet, and managing weight. Rx to lower blood sugar, such as metformin
Hyperthyroidism
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Sudden weight loss, rapid heartbeat, increased appetite, anxiety, tremor, sweating, frequent bowel movements, enlarged thyroid gland
- e: Overproduction of the thyroid hormone by the thyroid gland
- D: Physical examination, blood tests, radioactive iodine uptake test, and thyroid scans
- T: Antithyroid medications, oral radioactive iodine
Hypothyroidism
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Increasing tiredness, dry skin, constipation, and weight gain
- e: Underproduction of the thyroid hormone by the thyroid gland
- D: Blood test measuring thyroid stimulating hormone and thyroxine
- T: Use of synthetic thyroid hormone *levothyroxine
Graves’ disease
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Significant enlargement of the thyroid gland, increased heartbeat, muscle weakness, disturbed sleep, tremor, weight loss, anxiety, irritability, and bulging of the eyes
- e: Caused by malfunction in the body’s immune system that disrupts normal thyroid regulation, resulting in hyperthyroidism
- D: diagnosed by symptoms or Thyroid hormone tests
- T: Radioactive iodine therapy, antithyroid medications, beta blockers, and surgery
Endometriosis
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Pelvic pain with menstruation, pain with intercourse, pain with bowel movements and urination, infertility
- e: when pieces of endometrial tissue grow outside of the uterine lining, typically on the ovaries, intestines, or pelvic wall
- D: Pelvic examination, ultrasound, and laparoscopy
- T: Pain medication, hormone therapy, or laparoscopic surgery
Inguinal hernia
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Bulging in the groin area accompanied by an aching sensation, pain with lifting, coughing, or movement, weakness, or pressure in the groin
- e: portion of the intestines protrudes thought a weak point of the abdominal wall.
- D: physical exam
- T: Surgery to repair the hernia if symptoms present
Cryptorchidism
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Undescended testicles, when they fail to drop into the normal place of the scrotum
- e: sometimes unknown or structural abnormalities
- D: felt during physical exam
- T: surgery recommended after six months of age
Testicular torsion
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: tissues surrounding the testicle are not well attached, causing the testes to twist around the spermatic chord cutting off blood flow to the testicle causing severe pain
- e: unknown or born with it
- D: physical examination
- T: need to see a urologist, and surgery is necessary to correct.
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
Sx, Etiology, Dx, Treatment
- S: Enlargement of the prostate. uncomfortable urinary symptoms, urinary tract infections, or kidney problems
- e: unknown causes (maybe hormonal)
- D: Digital rectal examination, urine test, or prostate specific antigen test
- T: Transurethral resection of the prostate
epidemic
Occurs when a disease spreads rapidly to a large number of people.
Trust vs. Mistrust
- psychosocial crisis for infants
- tasks for infants are to form an attachment with and develop trust in their primary caregiver and then generalize those bonds to others
- results in self-confidence and optimism that caregivers will meet the infant’s basic needs
Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt
- psychosocial crisis for toddlers
- results in self-control and voluntary delaying of gratification
- Nonachievement leads to anger with self, a lack of self-confidence, and no sense of pride in the ability to perform tasks
Initiative vs. Guilt
- psychosocial crisis for preschoolers
- children look for new experiences but will hesitate when adults reprimand them or restrict them from trying new things.
- Achieving the tasks of this stage results in assertiveness, dependability, creativity, and personal achievement.
- Nonachievement leads to feelings of inadequacy, defeat, and guilt and the belief that they deserve punishment.
Industry vs. Inferiority
- psychosocial crisis for school-age children
- children need to receive recognition for accomplishments to provide reinforcement and build self-confidence.
- children need to receive recognition for accomplishments to provide reinforcement and build self-confidence.
- Nonachievement leads to feelings of inadequacy and the inability to compromise or cooperate with others.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
- psychosocial crisis for adolescents
- esults in emotional stability, ability to form committed relationships, and sound decision-making.
- Nonachievement leads to a lack of personal goals and values, rebelliousness, self-consciousness,
Intimacy vs. Isolation
- psychosocial crisis for young adults
- results in the ability for mutual self-respect and love, intimacy, and commitment to others and to a career.
- social isolation and withdrawal if not achieved
Generativity vs. Stagnation
- psychosocial crisis for middle adults
- Achieving the tasks of this stage results in professional and personal achievements and active participation in serving the community and society.
- self-preoccupation without the capacity to give and share with others.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
- psychosocial crisis for older adults
- results in wisdom, self-acceptance, and a sense of self-worth as life draws to a close.
- leads to dissatisfaction with one’s life, feelings of worthlessness, helplessness to change
Defense mechanism: apathy
Indifference; lack of interest, feeling, concern, or emotion
“I don’t care what she puts in my evaluation, it won’t change anything.”
Defense mechanism:Compensation
Balancing a failure or inadequacy with an accomplishment
“I ate a lot of candy yesterday, but I also ate a big green salad.”
Defense mechanism:conversion
Transformation of an anxiety into a physical symptom that has no cause
“I get a severe headache every time I see my ex with his new wife.”
Defense mechanism:displacement
Redirection of emotions away from the original subject or object onto another, less-threatening subject or object
“I had enough trouble handling that last patient. I don’t need to deal with this malfunctioning copier right now.”
Defense mechanism:dissociation
Disconnection of emotional importance from ideas or events and compartmentalizing those emotions in different parts of awareness
“I’m always getting into fights with my neighbors, which is odd because I teach an online course in conflict resolution.”
Defense mechanism: identification
Attribution of characteristics of someone else to oneself or the imitation of another
“I could pass that certification test just like she did, and I haven’t even studied the material.”
Defense mechanism: intellectualization
Analysis of a situation with facts and not emotions
“He didn’t break up with me because he didn’t love me. He just had too much on his plate at work at the time.”
Defense mechanism: rationalization
Belief in and expression of the opposite of one’s true feelings
“I really hate being in the military, but I always sign some people up at recruitment events.”
Defense mechanism: regression
Reversion to an earlier, more childlike, developmental behavior
“I can’t do all that paperwork, and you can’t make me.”
Defense mechanism: repression
Elimination of unpleasant emotions, desires, or problems from the conscious mind
“They tell me I was hurt in that robbery, but I can’t remember anything about it.”
Defense mechanism: sublimation
Rechanneling unacceptable urges or drives into something constructive or acceptable
“When I was a kid, I used to like to pull wings and legs off insects I’d catch. Now I am a biology teacher.”
