Module 15: Blood, Lymphatic, & Immunity Flashcards
pH of blood
7.35-7.45
Color of blood
Variable shades of red (depends on O2 content)
Volume of blood
4-6 Liters (depends on gender and body mass)
True/False: platelets aren’t cells
True - they are fragments of cells
Collective purpose of plasma proteins
Contribute to the osmotic balance of blood
Where are the majority of plasma proteins produced
Liver
Viscosity of blood
Thicker than water due to the amount of dilutes and suspended formed elements
Temperature of Blood
38 degrees Celsius (100.4 F) (body temp. Is 37 degrees Celsius)
The development of the formed elements of the blood
Hematopoiesis
All blood cells begin as _______.
Pluripotent stem cells in the red bone marrow
A chemical signal from one cell that initiates the stimulus from another
Cytokinesis
Proerythroblast ➡️ __________ ➡️ __________
Proerythroblast ➡️ Reticulocyte ➡️ Res Blood Cell (erythrocyte)
Megakaryoblast ➡️ __________ ➡️ __________
Megakaryoblast ➡️ Megakaryocyte ➡️ Platelet
Eosinophilic Myeloblast ➡️ __________
Eosinophilic Myeloblast ➡️ Eosinophil
Basophilic Myeloblast ➡️ __________
Basophilic Myeloblast ➡️ Basophil
Myeoblast ➡️ __________
Myeloblast ➡️ Neutrophil
Monoblast ➡️ __________ ➡️ _________
Monoblast ➡️ Monocyte ➡️ Macrophage
T Lymphoblast ➡️ __________
T Lymphoblast ➡️ T Lymphocyte (T cell)
B Lymphoblast ➡️ __________ ➡️ __________
B Lymphoblast ➡️ B Lymphocyte ➡️ Plasma Cell
NK Lymphoblast ➡️ __________
NK Lymphoblast ➡️ natural Killer (NK) cell
Name the 3 granular leukocytes
the phils
Eosinophil, Basophil, & Neutrophil
Name the 4 a granular leukocyte
the cytes
Monocytes, T Lymphocytes, B Lymphocytes, & NK cells
What cytokine increases number of early RBC’s in the bone marrow
Erythropoietin (EPO)
What cytokine increases the formation of platelets
Thrombopoietin (TPO)
What cytokine increases the production and differentiation of WBC’s
Colony-stimulating factors (CSF’s) and interleukins
What is the shape of RBC’s
Biconcave
Random fact - RBC’s biconcave shape gives them a high surface-to-volume ratio, allowing them to carry a great amount of oxygen in relation to their size
🙂
Do WBC’s or RBC’s have reversible deformity
RBC’s
Do mature RBC’s have a nucleus
No
How long do RBC’s live
120 days
True/False: RBC’s lack mitochondria, therefore use lots of their oxygen!!
FALSE! - they lack mitochondria, therefore they DON’T use any of the oxygen they carry
The oxygen-carrying molecule of RBC’s
Hemoglobin
Who removes RBC’s from circulation if they become damaged
WBC’s, spleen, & liver
Presence of too many RBC’s
Polycythemia
Excess number of RBC’s, increased blood viscosity, increase in all formed elements
Primary polycythemia
Increase in RBC’s due to another condition (smoking, sleep apnea, other cause of hypoxemia, dehydration)
Secondary polycythemia
A decrease in the normal number of RBC’s
Anemia
Anemia classifications based on RBC size
Macrocytic, normocytic, microcytic
Anemia cassifications based on RBC hemoglobin content
Hypochromic & normochromic
Study of the cause, set of causes, or manner of causation of a disease or condition.
Etiology
Low Hgb, Hct, and RBCs due to bleeding = ____
Hemorrhagic anemia
Low Hgb, Hct, and RBCs due to red cell lysis = ____
Hemolytic anemia
Low Hgb, Hct, and RBCs due to lack of cell production in the bone marrow = ____
Aplastic anemia
Low Hgb, Hct, and RBCs due to lack of vitamin B12 absorption in the G.I. tract = ____
Pernicious anemia
Size, amt., & cause of Hemorrhagic anemia
Normocytic, normochromic, & bleeding
Size, amt., & cause of Iron deficiency anemia
Microcytic, hypo chronic, & lack of iron
Size, amt., & cause of Pernicious anemia
Microcytic, normochromic, & vitamin B12 deficiency
Size, amt., & cause of Hemolytic anemia
Normocytic, normochromic, destruction of RBC’s
Size, amt., & cause of Aplastic anemia
Normocytic, normochromic, & bone marrow failure
What are the three functions of blood?
transportation
regulation
protection
Blood regulates what 3 things?
pH
osmolarity
temperature
Blood serves what 2 protective functions
prevents blood loss
immunological
What does blood transport?
02,C02, hormones, and nutrients
Blood is what type of tissue?
connective
what are the formed elements of blood?
RBC’s
WBC’s
Platelets
why are they called the formed elements?
platelets aren’t cells, they are fragments of cells
what % of blood consists of formed elements?
45%
what is the % of plasma in the blood
55%
what % of plasma is water?
92%
what % of plasma are solutes?
8%
what % of solutes are plasma proteins?
7 of the 8%
what is the remaining 1%?
miscellaneous solutes
what happens when a tube of blood is spun in a centrifuge?
denser elements sink to the bottom of the tube, it leaves less dense plasma on top
percentage of whole blood that is formed elements
hematocrit
collective function of plasma proteins
contribute to osmotic balance of the blood
where are the plasma proteins produced?
hepatocytes of liver
3 plasma proteins found in blood:
Albumins (54%)
Globulins (38%)
Fibrinogen (7%)
gamma globulins are also known as
immunoglobins or antibodies
what functions do gamma globulins serve?
flags so the immune system knows what needs to be destroyed
when are gamma globulins produced?
in response to organic molecules that the body recognizes as foreign
An increase in the number of WBC’s
WBC count > 10.0 x 10^3 WBC/mm^3
- pneumonia, appendicitis, abscess, leukemia, etc
Leukocytosis
WBC count
Leukopenia
hemoglobin is what?
the oxygen-carrying molecule of the red blood cell.
how many hgb molecules per RBC?
280 million
What does a hemoglobin molecule consist of?
four heme molecules:
- iron
- each heme carries one oxygen molecule
four globin chains (polypeptides)
What is heme?
a ringed molecule with one iron atom at the center
Where does hemoglobin have a high affinity for oxygen?
the lungs
Where does hemoglobin have a low affinity for oxygen?
the tissue level
total amount of hemoglobin in the blood
ranges from 14-16 g/dl
what makes up globin
four polypeptide chains
two alpha chains
two beta chains
one red blood cell can carry how many oxygen molecules?
1.1 billion (because the 280 million hgb molecules can all pick up 4 oxygens on the four hemes)
erythropoiesis
formation and maturation of red blood cells
average number of RBC’s in an individual
4.00-6.00 x 10^6 RBCs/mm^3
if the number of red cells lost exceeds the number made this is called
hypoxemia (too little oxygen in the blood)
what is erythropoietin (EPO)
a hormone to increase the rate of erythropoiesis (production of RBCs) within the bone marrow
where is EPO secreted from?
kidneys
what happens to a RBC as it matures?
- becomes smaller
- increases its hemoglobin content
- loses its nucleus
what results from the RBC losing its nucleus?
gains its biconcave shape
reticulocyte
almost mature RBC that still has some mitochondria, ribosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum
what percentage of circulating RBC’s are reticulocytes?
0.5-1.5%
How long does it take for a reticulocyte to mature after being released into the bloodstream?
1-2 days
hematocrit:
relative amount of red cells in the blood
average hematocrit
45% (little higher in men, little lower in women)
leukocytes are another name for what
white blood cells
how are WBCs different from RBCs
- contain nuclei
- larger
- don’t contain hemoglobin
- there are different types with unique functions
- fewer in number
normal white blood cell count:
5.0-10.0 x 10^3 WBCs/mm^3 (5,000-10,000)
two groups of WBCs
granulocytes and agranulocytes
granulocytes
- neutrophils
- eosinophils
- basophils
agranulocytes
monocytes: (macrophages in tissues) lymphocytes: -t lymphocytes -b lymphocytes -natural killer cells
granules of an eosinophil stain what color?
red
granules of a basophil stain what color?
dark purple/blue
granules of a neutrophil stain what color?
somewhere in the middle
the agranulocytes contain some cytoplasmic granules but they are much less prominent so they don’t stain as well as their granulocytic counterparts
FREEBEE lol @ max
How do physicians use the percentage of WBCs in diagnosis of specific diseases?
- increased granulocytes in bacterial infections
- increased lymphocytes in viral infections
what is the test called used to determine the number of each type of white cell in the blood?
differential analysis
what % of total WBCs in the bloodstream do neutrophils acquire?
60-70%
what % of total WBCs in the bloodstream do lymphocytes acquire?
20-25%
What % of total WBCs in the bloodstream do monocytes acquire?
3-8%
what % of total WBCs in the bloodstream do eosinophils acquire?
2-4%
what % of total WBCs in the bloodstream do basophils acquire?
0.5-1%
What are the functions of neutrophils
- powerful phagocyte
- increased in bacterial infections
what are the functions of lymphocytes
-increased in viral infections
what are the functions of monocytes
- differentiate into macrophages (phagocyte)
- present in chronic inflammation
what are the functions of eosinophils
- allergic reactions
- parasitic infections
what are the functions of basophils
- function poorly understood
- chronic inflammation
- Cytoplasmic frangments of large megakaryocytes
- assist with clot formation (platelet plug)
- 150-400 x 10^3/mm^3
- very short life span (5-9) days
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
A complex series of enzymatic reactions that occur in a stepwise or cascading fashion (the domino effect)
Coagulation
What are the two separate pathways of clotting activation
Extrinsic
•fast
•activated by tissue damage(tissue thromboplastin/TF)
•released from damaged tissue into the blood vessels
Intrinsic
•activated by endothelium cell trauma or vascular collagen being exposed by injury
Stages of Coagulation
1) formation of the enzyme prothrombinase
2) prothrombinase converts prothrombin to thrombin
3) thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin
4) fronting forms the clot and strengthens the platelet plug
*Ca++ plays a role throughout almost every step
Cofactors in the synthesis of clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X
Vitamin K
Required as a cofactors for almost every step of the coagulation process
Calcium
The liquid portion of unclotted blood
Plasma
The liquid portion of clotted blood
Serum
Stationary blood clot
Thrombus
A circulating particle, often a clot, that may obstruct a blood vessel
Embolus
A stationary clot that dislodged from its primary site and traveled to another location
Thromboembolus
True/False: anticoagulants are blood thinners
FALSE! FALSE! FALSE! They are NOT!!!!!!!!
What’s the use of Heparin
Administered intravenously to a stroke or heart attack victim, also used in surgery and dialysis
What’s the use of Coumadin (warfarin)
Oral medication used to inhibit clotting in high-risk patients
That use of EDTA?
Present in blood-draw tubes used for blood counts
The use of Sodium Citrate?
Present in blood collection bags for blood donations
Use of Aspirin?
Inhibits platelet aggregation
What is being explained?
• NOT blood thinners
• interfere with the coagulation process
-Heparin inactivates thrombin and factor C
-Warfarin interferes with the synthesis of a number of clotting proteins
-blood-donor bags contain sodium citrate
Anticoagulants
Chemicals used in medicine that breakdown clots that have already formed. TPA.
Thrombolytics
Universal donor blood type
O
Universal recipient blood typed
AB
True/False: it is common for someone to receive a whole-blood transfusion
False! Typically just red blood cells are transfused
What happens if a patient received the wrong blood type
Their antibodies to the donor RBC antigens will cause the incorrect RBC’s be destroyed by the immune system.
can also cause fever, shock, acute renal failure, and death
What is the lymphatic system
System consisting of lymphatic vessels through which a clear fluid (lymph) passes
Functions of lymphatic system
- draining interstitial fluid
- transporting dietary lipids absorbed by the GI Tracy to the blood
- facilitating immune responses
Where are lymphatic capillaries located
Throughout the body in the interstitial spaces
Carry lymphatic fluid one way, from tissue, back into the blood stream
Lymphatic vessels
- present at intervals along the lymphatic vessels
* provide opportunity for the lymphatic fluid to come in contact with the immune system
Lymph nodes
2 mechanisms that assist with the flow of lymphatic fluid and why?
Skeletal muscle contraction: “milks” the lymphatic vessels and encourages lymph movement
Respiratory movements: encourage lymph flow by ⬆️ and ⬇️ thoracic and abdominal pressures
What do lymphatic valves do
Restrict back-flow of lymph, forcing it to circulate in one direction
Flow of lymphatic fluid in lymph nodes
Afferent vessels in, efferent out
Flow of fluids
1) plasma in the blood vessels
2) interstitial fluid
3) lymphatic capillaries
4) lymphatic vessels
5) lymphatic ducts
7) back into the blood stream
Lymphatic fluid is moved by….
- pressure in the interstitial space
- the milking action of skeletal nuclear contraction
- back flow valves
- changes in thoracic and abdominal pressures
Flow of Lymphatic fluid
1) interstitial fluid
2) lymphatic capillaries
3) lymphatic vessels
4) lymphatic nodes
5) R & L (thoracic) lymphatic ducts
6) venous system
Bean-shaped lymphatic organs and are anywhere from 1 to 25 mm in length. There are approximately 600 in the body, and they occur at intervals along the lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes
4 important groups of lymph nodes
Submandibular
Cervical
Axillary
Inguinal
(Just for fun - not stated in the objective) State the flow of lymph nodes
1) lymph flows into a mode through adders the lymphatic vessels
2) then flows through the cortex, when it comes into contact with large populations of B lymphocytes, dendritic cells, and macrophages
3) then flows through the nose into the medulla where it is exposed to more B lymphocytes, plasma cells, and more macrophages
4) then the lymph exits the lymph node through efferent vessels
What 8 things make up the first line of defense in innate immunity
- skin
- mucous membranes
- lacrimation
- salivation
- flow of urine
- vaginal secretions
- defecation
- vomiting
What 6 things make up the second line of defense in innate immunity
- endogenous antimicrobials
- complement system
- iron-bonding proteins
- interferon
- phagocytes (wandering & fixed macrophages)
- natural killer (NK)
Where are Kupffer cells located
Liver
Where are alveolar macrophages located
Lung
Where are microbial cells located
CNS
2 groups of phagocytes in the second line of defense
Neutrophils & macrophages
Phagocytosis is a _______________ process
Non-specific
- chemotaxes
- adherence
- ingestion
- digestion
- killing
Abnormally high body temp. Due to resetting of the hypothalamic thermostat
Fever
Fever is a _________ response
Non-specific
How is a fever good?
- speeds up body reactions
- ⬆️ the effects of endogenous antimicrobials
- sequesters nutrients from microbes
Three stages of inflammation
1) vasodilation & ⬆️ vascular permeability
2) emigration of phagocytes from the blood to the tissue
3) tissue repair
A substance that is recognized as foreign and races with product of the immune system
Antigen
What does an adaptive response to an antigen do
Demonstrates specificity and memory
Which of the 4 main characteristics that determine the antigenic its if a substance is the most important?
Recognition as foreign
A molecule that fits all the criteria, except of size
Hapten
What site can race with the immune system
Antigenic determinants or epitopes
A substance is antigenic if it is….
- foreign
- organic
- structurally complex
- large enough
In ____________________, T-cytotoxic cells are activated directly against abnormal cells, such as cancer cells or even transplants
Cell-mediated immunity
In ______________________ B lymphocytes are activated to become plasma cells, which produce and secrete specific antibodies
Antibody/mediated immunity
Required for cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity & initially detect the antigen to present it to the rest of the immune system
antigen processing and presentation
General steps for antigen processing and presentation
- phagocytosis by antigen-presenting cells
- digestion of antigen within vessels
- synthesis of MHC class molecules
- fusion of antigen fragment with MHC class molecule
- insertion of antigen-MHC class complex in the plasma membrane
Antigen presentation
- once an antigen is processed, it is ready to meet the middle-man, the T helper cells
- colonial selection: binding as well as cytokine stimulation results in the activation and proliferation of the T helper cell
When an inactive t helper cell will bind with its T cell receptor to the presented antigen on the APC.
T Helper Cell Activation
- inactive at cytotoxic cells bind to abnormal cells presenting viral proteins or cancer proteins on MHC class 1 molecule
- T helper cells act as a co-stimulator
- the T cytotoxic cells will also undergo clinal selection
T Cytotoxic Activation
- B cells can be activated by direct recognition of antigen through B cell receptors or through T helper cell activation
- B cells undergo clinal selection
B Cell Activation
In B Cell Activation what will the B cell clones become
B memory cells or plasma cells
Steps of exogenous antigens
(IDSVFBI)
- ingestion of the antigen
- digestion of the antigen into fragments
- synthesis of MHC class 2 molecules
- vesicular packaging of class 2 vesicles
- fusion of fragments and class 2 vesicles
- binding of fragments to class 2 molecules
- insertion of the antigen-MHC class 2 complexes in the plasma membrane for recognition
Steps for endogenous antigens
(DSBVI)
- digestion of the antigen into fragments
- synthesis of MHC class 1 molecules
- binding of fragments to class 1 molecules
- vesicular packaging of class 1 molecules
- insertion of the antigen-MHC class 1 complexes in the plasma membrane for recognition
What are immunoglobulins (Ig)
Antibodies
2 main regions of an antibody
Constant & Variabls
What antibody region consists of the distal segments of the heavy and light chains and forms the antigen-binding site
Variable region
What antibody region differs slightly for the different classes of antibodies, but it is constant enough to be recognized by other immune system components by other immune system components like macrophages and complements
Constant region
The basic ________ structure consists of 4 polypeptides chains, 2 long (heavy chains) & 2 short (light chains
Antibody
What kind of bonds link the chains together in a Y-shaped arrangement in an antibody
Disulfide
_______ are produced in response to antigen through antibody-mediated immunity
Antibodies
Antibody functions
- Neutralizing antigen
- Immobilizing bacteria
- Agglutinating and precipitating antigen
- Activating complements
- Enhancing phagocytosis
Result of Neutralizing antigen
Neutralizes toxins and bonds to viruses to restrict their binding to host cells
Result of immobilizing bacteria
Restricts the spread of motile bacteria by binding to cilia or flagella
Result of Agglutinating and precipitating antigen
Multiple antigen binding sits can result in one antibody binding to 2 or more antigen—>causes agglutination, binding may cause soluble antigen to become insoluble
Result of activating complement
Antigen/antibody complexes intimidate the classical complement pathway
Result of enhance phagocytosis
Opsomize (flag) for phagocytosis
4 ways to acquire adaptive immunity
Natural immunity
Artificial immunity
Active immunity
Passive immunity
Active immunity
Long-term
Passive immunity
Short-term
• acquired cells die or antibodies are eventually lost
Result of Naturally-acquired active immunity
Immune products acquired following exposure to antigen
Ex. hep A stimulates production of anti-hep A antibodies
Result of naturally-acquired passive immunity
Transfer of antibody from non-medical source; IgB through the placenta, IgA through breast milk
(Ex. a baby receives antibodies from its mother through the placenta and breast milk)
Result of artificially-acquired active immunity
Immune products acquired through vaccination; antigens given that are immunogenic but not pathogenic
(Ex. a person receives an injection of a weakened pathogen that stimulates the body to form an antibody)
Result of artificially-active passive immunity
Prepared injection of antibody
The sequence of events and outcomes of the immune response with an initial exposure to an antigen
- 1st exposure
- 5-7 day delay
- production of IgM followed by IgB
Primary immune response
Relates to second or subsequent exposures
- very little delay due to memory T helper and B cells
- production of IgM followed by a long-lasting population of IgG
Secondary immune response
The indicator for an antibody-mediated response (making lemonade)
Antibody titer
2 main differences between the primary and secondary immune responses
Time & Antibody Titer
What do plasma cells produce
IgM antibodies, followed by a population of IgG
Goal of the primary response
Provide an initial antibody-mediated response and produce a population of memory cells
the overall process by which bleeding i stopped
hemostasis
what are the three mechanisms involved with hemostasis
- vascular spasm
- platelet plug formation
- coagulation (clotting)
which of the formed elements are responsible for blood clotting
thrombocytes (platelets)
what happens during vascular spasm
- smooth muscle contraction reduces blood loss
- activated by chemicals from platelets, damage to the smooth muscle, and pain receptor reflexes
what happens during platelet plug formation
- platelets release procoagulant chemicals and become sticky
- forms a loose plug
coagulation
taking that which is liquid (plasma) and make it a solid (clot) or at least a semi-solid
clumping of platelets is called
platelet aggregation
referred to as the un-clotting system
fibrinolytic system
fibrolysis refers to
clot dissolution
what is plasmin
a potent proteolytic enzyme
how does fibrinolysis occur
plasmin digests fibrin and interferes with new clot formation by inactivating fibrinogen, prothrombin, and other clotting factors.
true/false blood type is determined by genetics
true
two MAJOR blood groups (many others exist)
ABO and RH systems
how is blood type tested
by determining presence or absence of specific markers
specific markers that can react with products of the immune system
antigens
4 possible blood types
A, B, AB, O
a person develops antibodies in their plasma for the a and b antigens on their red cells
FREEBEE
if red cells have an A antigen then
anti-B antibodies will be present in the plasma
if red cells have a B antigen then
anti-A antibodies will be present in the plasma
if red cells have antigens A and B then
no antibodies will be present in the plasma
if no A or B antigens are present on the red cells then
anti-A and anti-B antibodies will be present in the plasma
are antigens and antibodies present at birth?
antigens are
antibodies are not
when are the antibodies in plasma formed?
shortly after birth (within 6 months)
what would happen if an individual with blood type B was given a transfusion of blood type A?
the anti-A antibodies will flag the red cells for destruction by the immune system
the RH blood type is determined simply by
the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on the red cells
what will happen if an Rh- person is exposed to Rh+ blood
they will develop anti-Rh antibody because the antigen is foreign to them
Hemolytic disease of the Newborn (HDN) is caused by
blood incompatibility between expectant mother and fetus
hemolytic means
red blood cells are being destroyed
normally mother and baby’s blood don’t come into contact with each other but its common during birth
FREEBEE
the problem with HDN occurs when
- dad is Rh+
- mother is Rh-
- baby is Rh+ due to genes inherited by the father
plasma is filtered by the capillary walls to form
interstitial fluid
plasma:
- liquid component of blood
- filtered through the capillary walls to form interstitial fluid
- large proteins don’t pass through the capillaries
interstitial fluid:
- clear fluid
- less protein than plasma
- most is reabsorbed back into the blood
lymphatic fluid:
- unaltered interstitial fluid in the lymphatic vessels
- absorbed dietary lipids
primary lymphatic organs:
- locations where stem cells divide to produce immune cells
- bone marrow and thymus
secondary lymphatic organs:
- locations of cell maturation and immune responses
- lymph nodes, spleen, lymphoid tissue
immunocompetent means
they can facilitate an immune response
true/false as you get older the thymus enlarges
FALSE. It gets much much smaller but will continue to release some mature T cells
innate immunity is also called
non-specific immunity
innate immunity:
- non-specific
- non-adaptive
- barriers (such as skin and mucous membranes, fever, phagocytosis, inflammation, endogenous microbial)
adaptive immunity is also called
specific immunity
adaptive immunity:
- specific
- adaptive
- barriers (such as t and b lymphocytes, plasma cells, antibodies, enzymes)
inflammation is what type of response
non-specific, non-adaptive, innate response
local signs of inflammation
- pain
- redness
- heat
- swelling
- possible loss of function
three stages of inflammation
- vasodilation and increased permeability
- emigration of phagocytes from the blood into the interstitial space
- tissue repair
the main players in adaptive immunity are
lymphocytes
types of t lymphocytes:
- T helper (CD4+) cells
- T cytotoxic (CD8+) cells
- T regulator cells
- Memory T helper cytotoxic and Memory T helper cells
Middle man or main “helper” of the immune response. These are also called CD4+ T cells.
T helper cells
These T cells destroy abnormal cells. Virally-infected cells and cancerous cells are their main targets. These are also called CD8+ T cells.
T cytotoxic cells
Keep the immune system from getting out of control. Decrease the reactivity of the other types of T cells. Essential for maintaining self-tolerance.
T regulator cells (suppressor cells)
Produced with an initial exposure to a n antigen to provide memory of the event and a rapid response if re exposed to the antigen. (memory cells don’t participate first time around)
Memory T cytotoxic cells and Memory T helper cells
major histocompatibility complex
is a group of genes that codes for a group of transmembrane proteins on the surface of cells
major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is also called
human leukocyte antigens (HLA)
two major types of MHC molecules
class I and class II
MHC class I
molecules are present on all body cells (except RBCs)
MHC class II
molecules are demonstrated on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
cytokines:
chemical signals from one cell that influences another.
interleukins
cytokines BETWEEN (inter) white blood cells
interferons:
anti-viral properties and stimulators of the immune system
tumor-necrosis factor (TNF)
produced by macrophages to encourage inflammation
erythropoietin
cytokine from the kidneys that increases the number and activity of cell precursors in the bone marrow
5 classes of antibodies:
- lgG
- lgM
- lgA
- lgE
- lgD
lgG:
- monomer, two antigen-binding sites, 80% of total antibody
- only class to cross placenta
- provide long-term immunity
- secondary immune response
lgM
- pentamer, ten antigen-binding sites
- short-lived response
- great activator of complement
- first to be secreted by plasma cells
- primary immune response
lgA
- dimer, four antigen-binding sites
- most numerous in body secretions
lgE
- monomer, less than 0.1% of total antibody in the blood
- involved in allergic reactions
lgD
- monomer
- act as antigen receptors on B lymphocytes
complement system
system of proteins that “complement” the immune system
main proteins in the complement system
C1-C9
complement system is activated by
step wise or cascading fashion
functions of the complement system
- encourages vasodilation and inflammation
- antigen opsonization
- destroys antigen
self recognition:
ability to recognize ones own cellular markers
self tolerance:
immune system must leave self antigens alone
autoimmune disease results when
failure of self recognition of self tolerance (immune system would perceive that various auto antigens were foreign and should be destroyed)
