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General Psychology > Module 1: Building Blocks > Flashcards

Module 1: Building Blocks Flashcards

Memorize before Test 1 on 9/10

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1
Q

Psychology

A

The scientific study of thought and behavior

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2
Q

What is the most common or modern view/take on psychology?

A

Biopsychosocial- the combination of biology (genes), psychology (long-term patterns of thought), and day-to-day social interactions

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3
Q

Clinical Psychology

A

The study, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders

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4
Q

Cognitive Psychology

A

Focuses on internal processes like thinking and perception

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5
Q

Counseling Psychology

A

Helping people deal with short-term problems or less severe disorders, such as grief

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6
Q

Community Psychology

A

Focuses on how people are connected to their communities
Works to create social environments that promote good mental health

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7
Q

Cultural Psychology

A

Study of how culture impacts our patterns of thought and behavior
Looks at differences in psych among world cultures

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8
Q

Developmental Psychology

A

The study of how thought and behavior change and remain the same across the lifespan

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9
Q

Educational Psychology

A

Focuses on teachers and students
Studies how people learn and what teaching methods are most effective

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10
Q

Evolutionary Psychology

A

Examines how certain behaviors may have developed as an adaptation to a problem faced by our ancestors (deals with historical things)

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11
Q

Forensic Psychology

A

Combines psychology and law

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12
Q

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

A

Deals with the workplace
How can we make workers more productive and satisfied with their jobs

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13
Q

Social Psychology

A

Studies how real or perceived “others” impact our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Also studies how groups work with or against each other

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14
Q

Nativism

A

People are born with innate knowledge
Aka Nature
Supported by Plato

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15
Q

Philosophical Empiricism

A

Knowledge comes from experience
Aka Nurture
Supported by Aristotle and John Locke

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16
Q

Trephination

A

Drilling a small hole in the skull to let demons escape
*Outdated

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17
Q

Phrenology

A

Bumps/divots in the skull correlate to an excess or lack of certain psych traits
*Outdated

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18
Q

Weber + Fechner

A

Real vs perceived world

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19
Q

Gestalt

A

Whole is more than the sum of its parts
Sensation + perception = whole experience

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20
Q

Structuralism

A

What makes up our consciousness

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21
Q

Functionalism

A

The function of our consciousness
Based on Darwin’s theories of evolution and natural selection

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22
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

The father of psych as a science
Opened the first psych lab in 1879

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23
Q

William James

A

Taught the first psych class and wrote the first psych textbook

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24
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

Assumes that the unconscious mind is the most powerful influencer of our thoughts and behaviors
Founded by Sigmund Freud

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25
Q

Behaviorism

A

Thoughts/motives don’t matter, only observable behavior
Opposite of cognitive psych
Founded by John Watson

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26
Q

Humanism

A

All humans have the capacity to be good and strive for personal growth

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27
Q

Kurt Lewin

A

Wanted behaviorism and cognitive psych to get along
Mind explains behavior

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28
Q

G . Stanley Hall

A

First American PhD in psych;
First psych lab in USA;
Founded of APA

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29
Q

Margaret Floy Washburn

A

First woman to get PhD in psych

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30
Q

Francis Cecil Sumner

A

First Black individual to get a psych PhD

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31
Q

Assumption

A

Starting point in our thinking

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32
Q

Empirical

A

Informed by testable science

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33
Q

Theoretically Diverse

A

There are various viewpoints that are worth discussing

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34
Q

Sociohistorical Evolution

A

Social and political history influences the psychology of study participants

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35
Q

Multiple Causality

A

There can be multiple factors causing a psych concept

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36
Q

Confound/Third Variable Problem

A

There might be a third variable actually causing the change rather than the iv

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37
Q

Cultural Heritage matters

A

Psych isn’t universal
Cultural background significantly influences it

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38
Q

Subjectivity

A

Abstract psych concepts can be interpreted differently, leading to disagreements

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39
Q

Basic vs Applied Research

A

Conducted to expand knowledge without real-world applications vs research that does have real-world applications

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40
Q

Reciprocal Determinism

A

Individuals influence each other mutually

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41
Q

Skepticism vs Naive Realism

A

Belief that we can’t believe everything we see vs belief that the world is exactly as we see it

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42
Q

Peer Review

A

Process where experts in the field evaluate research to determine if it’s worthy of wide-spread support

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43
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

Seeing results and claiming that you “knew it the whole time”, even if your original hypothesis was different

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44
Q

Overconfidence

A

Having an excess trust in ourselves despite what evidence suggests

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45
Q

Perceiving Patterns

A

Wanting to find patterns in randomness or chaos

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46
Q

Scientific Method

A

Observe, theory, hypothesis, study, collect data, analyze using statistics, draw conclusions, report, peer review, revise

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47
Q

Hypothesis

A

Testable theory

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48
Q

Independent vs Dependent Variables

A

Causes the change and is manipulated by the experimenter vs what will be changed or what is being measured by the experimenter

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49
Q

Operational Definition

A

How we measure the variables
Taking something abstract and making it measurable and observable

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50
Q

Replication

A

Doing studies multiple times and getting the same results

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51
Q

Experiment

A

The only way to determine causality
Two requirements:
- Experimental groups must be randomly assigned
- Experimenter has to be able to manipulate the iv

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52
Q

Quasi-Experiment

A

When the iv cannot be manipulated by the experimenter
Ex: age and gender

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53
Q

Longitudinal vs Cross-Sectional Design

A

Following the same group of subjects across time vs testing different groups of various ages at the same time
Only applies to when iv is age

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54
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Observing participants without their knowledge
Only occurs in public spaces where privacy isn’t an expectation

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55
Q

Survey

A

Asking questions and recording answers

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56
Q

Between-Subjects vs Within-Subjects Design

A

Exposing participants to one level of the iv vs exposing participants to each level of the iv

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57
Q

Reliability

A

Getting the same results across multiple instances

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58
Q

Validity

A

Making sure you’re measuring the construct that you think you are

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59
Q

Internal vs External Validity

A

The amount of control that the researcher has over the experiment vs how similar the experiment is to the real world

60
Q

Sample vs Population

A

People participating in your study vs the people you’re trying to apply the research to
Want your sample to be representative of your population

61
Q

WEIRD

A

The types of countries that people who usually participate in studies are from
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic

62
Q

Self-selection

A

Participants who choose to participate in your study are different than those who choose not to participate in your study

63
Q

Bias

A

If your sample is biased, your population must be biased too

64
Q

Descriptive Stats

A

Describes your data using the mean (average), median (middle), and mode (most commonly occurring data point)

65
Q

Inferential Stats

A

Tells you if there’s a statistical difference between your groups using T-tests (two groups), F-tests (two or more groups), and P-value (how likely it is that the difference is due to chance; set at 0.05 or less)

66
Q

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

A

Asking questions with open-ended or unstructured answers vs collecting info using quantifiable measures (like numerics)

67
Q

Common Sense

A

Intuitive ability to understand the world

68
Q

Experimenter Expectancy Effects

A

When the researcher’s expectations for how the study should go (their hypothesis) and/or their knowledge of who is in which experimental group unintentionally influences the behavior of the participants

69
Q

Demand Characteristics

A

Subtle cues given by the experimenter that communicates their expectations, which signals to the participants that they should behave in a certain way

70
Q

Hawthorne Effect

A

People tend to change their behavior when they know they’re being observed

71
Q

Social Desirability Bias

A

People tend to present themselves more favorably when they know they’re being observed due to a fear of looking bad or being considered socially unacceptable

72
Q

Single-Blind vs Double-Blind Studies

A

When the participants don’t know which experimental group they’re a part of vs when both the researcher and the participants don’t know who is in what group

73
Q

Bogus Pipeline

A

Lying to your participants about there being a lie detector test to make them less likely to lie
People would rather tell the truth, even if it’s controversial, than be caught in a lie

74
Q

Meta-analysis

A

Combining the results of all the research studies that have been done on a specific question and using them to draw a conclusion

75
Q

Ethics

A

Standards of right and wrong

76
Q

Scientific Misconduct

A

Intentional ethical violations that includes: plagiarism (passing someone’s work or ideas off as your own), falsification (deleting or altering data that you collected), and fabrication (not collecting any data and making all of it up)

77
Q

What are the only circumstances in which deception is permissible in a study?

A
  • it’s justified by it’s scientific value
  • it’s part of the research design
  • there is no alternative
78
Q

Debriefing

A

Must be conducted after any study that involved deception, in which you must: come clean about what you lied about, restate the purpose of the study, and give them the chance to ask questions

79
Q

Institutional Review Boards (IRB’s)

A

Evaluate proposed research to see if its methods are valid and ethical

80
Q

Informed Consent

A

Participants of a study must be informed of what it’s about and if there are any potential risks or dangers involved. You must also tell them that they have the right to withdraw at any time

81
Q

Respect for Persons

A

The dignity and autonomy of participants must be protected. This means that they cannot be coerced into participating, including through monetary compensation

82
Q

Beneficence

A

Maximize the benefits and minimize the costs of participating
Done through cost-benefit analysis

83
Q

Privacy and Confidentiality

A

The privacy of the participants must be protected. This means that their identity cannot be directly linked to the data collected in the study

84
Q

Justice or Fairness

A

The benefits and costs of a study must be distributed equally among the participants

85
Q

Correlation Strength and Direction

A

Statistics that range from +1.0 to -1.0 that assess the strength of correlation between two variables
Further from 0 = stronger correlation
Positive number = direct relationship
Negative = inverse relationship

86
Q

Normal Distribution

A

The goal of a study is to have the mean, median, and mode (the measures used in descriptive stats) be the same

87
Q

Universal vs Ecological Perspective

A

All humans develop in a similar path vs the role of culture/environment on development

88
Q

Teratogens

A

Things that a pregnant mother is exposed to that could negatively affect the development of the fetus, such as alcohol or the flu

89
Q

Critical vs Sensitive Periods

A

Time period in which a trait has to be learned or else it can never be learned vs a period when it is easier to learn a trait, but still possible to learn it later after the period has ended

90
Q

Post Hoc Thinking

A

Making connections that you shouldn’t
“B comes after A, so A must have caused B”

91
Q

Stage vs Shift Theories

A

Must complete one stage before moving on to the next and there is no going back vs development that occurs in a series of shifts that can happen either simultaneously or not

92
Q

Habituation

A

When a baby directs its attention to new stimuli

93
Q

Social Referencing

A

Babies tend to look to their caregivers after being presented with new stimuli to understand how they should react to it

94
Q

Authoritarianism

A

Parenting style characterized by strict rules and strong consequences for breaking them

95
Q

Permissive Parenting

A

Parenting style characterized by no rules being placed on the child and no punishments even if its warranted

96
Q

Negligent Parenting

A

Parenting style characterized by being completely uninvolved and not providing your child with the basic amount of sensory and mental stimulation that they need

97
Q

Authoritative

A

Parenting style characterized by rules that are expected to be followed, but that are communicated about if they’re broken. Parents will take into account context and try to understand the “why” when coming up with consequences.

98
Q

Attachment

A

Emotional bond between a child and their caregiver

99
Q

The Strange Situation

A

How we understand infant attachment
Examines the differences between how a child responds when their caregiver leaves and when they return

100
Q

Secure Attachment

A

Caregiver leaves = child upset or not
Caregiver returns = child acknowledges them or is consoled
Generally has the best outcomes
60% of infants

101
Q

Avoidant Attachment

A

Caregiver leaves = child not upset
Caregiver returns = child doesn’t acknowledge them
20% of infants

102
Q

Ambivalent/Anxious Attachment

A

Caregiver leaves = child is upset
Caregiver returns = child is still upset and cannot be consoled
15% of infants

103
Q

Disorganized Attachment

A

No clear pattern of response
5% of infants

104
Q

Temperament

A

Biological tendency to behave in a certain way
Generally appears in the toddler age
Can be either easy, slow to warm, or difficult

105
Q

Prenatal Programming

A

The process by which events that occur in the womb alter the development of the fetus

106
Q

Pruning

A

The dying off of certain synapses or neural connections due to a lack of stimulation

107
Q

Jean Piaget

A

Created two important theories: the stages of cognitive development and the shifts of moral development

108
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A

The first stage of development from ages 0-2, in which infants learn about the world through experience, movement, and the senses
Piaget believed that they did this largely independently
Children in this stage struggle with object permanence

109
Q

Preoperational Stage

A

Second stage from ages 2-6, in which we see the emergence of symbolic thinking
Children in this stage struggle with egotism and lack of conservation

110
Q

Concrete Operational Stage

A

Third stage from ages 6-11, in which children understand how to manipulate objects that are directly in front of them, but still struggle with abstract thinking

111
Q

Formal Operational Stage

A

Fourth and final stage from ages 12 to adulthood, in which logic, abstract thinking, and understanding hypotheticals become possible

112
Q

Critiques of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

A
  • underestimated the ability of a lot of kids
  • assumed universality
  • saw the stages as independent rather than capable of stage mixing
113
Q

Object Permanence

A

The understanding that objects still exist even when they cannot be seen

114
Q

Egotism

A

Assuming that everyone in the world has the same mental abilities and mental world that you do, making it difficult to picture the world from another person’s perspective (aka lacking in theory of mind)

115
Q

Conservation

A

Understanding that changing an object’s shape does not necessarily change it’s mass or volume

116
Q

Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development

A

Occurs in three shifts:
Realism to Relativism
Prescription to Principle
Outcomes to Intentions

117
Q

Realism vs Relativism

A

There are rules and there is no reason to break them vs there are rules but sometimes they have to be broken, but only for a good reason

118
Q

Prescription vs Principle

A

The letter of the law is the law vs understanding the meaning or intention behind a rule

119
Q

Outcomes vs Intentions

A

Right and wrong are determined by whether they have good or bad outcomes vs understanding that intentions or the reasoning behind what someone did is important

120
Q

Assimilate vs Accomodate

A

Another aspect of Piaget’s theory of moral development
Taking a new experience and incorporating it into your current understanding of the world vs taking a new experience and using it to change your world view

121
Q

Lawrence Kohlberg

A

Proposed a three-stage theory of moral development that moved from self-focus to selflessness

122
Q

Preconventional Level

A

First level of moral reasoning as defined by Kohlberg, in which right and wrong are determined by what is rewarded and punished

123
Q

Conventional Level

A

Second level of moral reasoning as defined by Kohlberg, in which right and wrong is based on rules set worth by caregivers

124
Q

Postconventional Level

A

Third and final level of moral reasoning as defined by Kohlberg, in which you come up with your own ideas of right and wrong (aka your moral code)

125
Q

Lev Vygotsky

A

Different from Piaget in that he believed cognitive development occurs through social interactions
He also though that language was critical to development whereas Piaget though it was simply a consequence of it

126
Q

Zone of Proximal Development

A

Idea created by Vygotsky, which states that when a child’s in their “zone of potential”, they will learn better and faster if they’re aided by someone more experienced. This is similar to scaffolding, also defined by Vygotsky

127
Q

Scaffolding

A

When an older individual extensively aids a younger individual as they’re learning a concept, but then backs off as the younger individual gets better

128
Q

Private Speech

A

The language that we speak to ourselves. Kids tend to say these things out loud, but internalize them more as they get older

129
Q

Theory of Mind

A

Understanding that each person has their own mental abilities and mental world, which is critical to understanding other people’s behavior
Deficits can occur in kids with autism and deaf kids of hearing parents
Advancement can occur in kids with older siblings, kids with higher socialization, and kids born into higher socioeconomic status

130
Q

Erik Erikson

A

Proposed a model of personality development occurring in 8 stages: trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, integrity vs despair

131
Q

Initiative vs Guilt

A

Am I good or am I bad?

132
Q

Industry vs Inferiority

A

Am I competent or am I worthless?

133
Q

Intimacy

A

The ability to fuse one’s identity with another’s without fear of losing yourself

134
Q

Generativity vs Stagnation

A

Did I create new ideas, people, or products? A legacy?
Or am I too self-focused to contribute productively to society or family?

135
Q

Individuation

A

As defined by Carl Jung: the process by which someone’s personality becomes whole and balanced. Those who do not do this, instead clinging to their youth and underdeveloped selves, can spiral into midlife crisis

136
Q

Emerging Adulthood

A

Ages 18 to 25, defined by identity exploration, instability, self-focus, feeling in-between, and the age of possibilities

137
Q

Developmental Norms

A

The median age at which specific traits develop

138
Q

Reflexes in babies include:

A

Rooting, palmar (grasping), sucking, babinski, moro (falling)

139
Q

Cephalocaudal vs Proximodistal Control

A

Development of control begins at the head and moves downwards vs begins at the trunk and moves outwards

140
Q

How does the most important element of a child’s social development change throughout their lifetime?

A

Birth to school age = parents
Childhood to Puberty = same-sex peers
Puberty and onwards = mixed sex peers

141
Q

Emotional Competence

A

The ability to control emotions and know when it’s appropriate to express certain ones

142
Q

Fluid vs Crystallized Intelligience

A

Raw mental ability, including pattern recognition, problem solving, working memory, and abstract reasoning vs knowledge that has been gained through experience, education, learning, and practice

143
Q

Semantic Memory

A

Recalling facts and information

144
Q

What are some ways of measuring age besides years?

A

Biological- how functional is the body
Psychological- mental attitudes and competency
Functional- ability to function within your given role in society
Social- willingness to follow social norms

145
Q

Socioemotional Selectivity

A

Younger people tend to seek information relating to the future while older people tend to seek information that is emotionally satisfying

146
Q

Types of Grief

A

Absent- low before and after
Chronic Grief- low before, high after, long-lasting
Chronic Depression- high before, high after, long-lasting
Common Grief- low before, spikes after, gradually decreases over time
Depressed-Improved- high before, lowers after

General Psychology (12 decks)

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