Midterm Review Slides Flashcards
when are rewards most likely to undermine intrinsic motivation?
- when they’re perceived as CONTROLLING
- when the activity was initially INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATING/inherently interesting
- when rewards are EXPECTED
- when rewards are TANGIBLE (ie. money, prizes)
when are rewards least likely to undermine intrinsic motivation?
- when they’re INFORMATIONAL rather than controlling
- when the task IS NOT INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATING/inherently interesting to begin with (ie. algorithmic tasks)
- when the reward is UNEXPECTED
- when the reward is INTANGIBLE
- when the reward is perceived as AUTONOMY SUPPORTING
when rewards are intangible, they’re less likely to undermine intrinsic motivation - explain
intangible rewards like PRAISE can undermine intrinsic motivation if delivered in a controlling way
but GENERALLY, research suggests that they don’t have a negative impact in the same way as tangible rewards
when rewards are seen as autonomy supporting, they’re less likely to undermine intrinsic motivation
ie. artist example
when they’re commissioned to do work that they enjoy, it’s seen as ENABLING rather than CONTROLLING
basic idea behind cognitive evaluation theory
external events like rewards (both tangible and intangible) can either increase or decrease intrinsic motivation
key factor in cognitive evaluation theory
is the reward more meant to CONTROL or to INFORM?
controlling events > thwart autonomy > less intrinsic motivation
(positive) informational events > competence support > more intrinsic motivation
recall: events can have both controlling and informational elements - the impact of the event will be determined by which element is the most salient
Freud vs Hull - the nature of drive
FREUD: 2 types of drive, eros (life) and thanatos (death) instincts
HULL: one single pooled energy source composed of all current bodily deficits/disturbances
Freud vs Hull - the role of learning in drive theory
FREUD: acquire learned strategies (defensive strategies) for managing sexual and aggressive drives, allowing them to be channeled in socially acceptable ways
HULL: drives energize behaviour, but don’t guide it (habits guide)
^ habit is acquired through learning (ie. what has worked for us in the past)
Freud vs Hull - drive theory model
FREUD: behaviour is a function of drive, unconscious conflict & defense mechanisms
HULL: behaviour is a function of drive, habit and incentive motivation (how appealing the stimulus is - quantity/quality)
Freud vs Hull - approach to drive theory
FREUD: clinical observations
HULL: scientific method
James vs McDougall - instinct theory
BASIC IDEA: even complex human behaviours can be explained in terms of instincts
KEY DIFFERENCE: McDougall believed that ALL behaviour can be explained in terms of instincts, while James emphasized modification through LEARNING
inhibition of reward by pain
motivation-decision model of pain predicts that pain has a suppressive effect on the ability to experience pleasure
ie. pain decreases engagement in rewarding activities, like eating tasty foods
by decreasing reward pleasantness and attenuating normal reward-seeking behaviour, pain…
pain ensures that necessary action is taken to protect the individual
in humans, high degree of comorbidity between chronic pain and…
depression
which is characterized by inability to enjoy everyday pleasures (anhedonia)
opioids and dopamine are important for regulating both…
pain and pleasure
and mediate interactions between the two, resolving pain-pleasure dilemmas
do we see overlap in pain and pleasure processing at neural level?
yes we do
ACC: reps the size and probability of rewards, as well as efforts to obtain them
INSULA: encodes taste and food cravings, linked to felt satisfaction during a task, more broadly involved in encoding interoceptive signals communicating internal body state
AMYGDALA: involved in both pain/threat processing, as well as reward
why do we sometimes seek out painful experiences?
pain may ENHANCE PLEASURE
pleasure is understood within the context of pain, and the RELIEF of pain is itself a pleasurable experience
in itself, the relief of pain…
is a pleasurable experience
even negative stimuli may be experienced as rewarding in the context of more negative stimuli
ie. experience of moderate pain can be reported as pleasant when compared to alternative outcome of intense pain (relative relief)
relative relief
experience of moderate pain can be reported as pleasant when compared to alternative outcome of intense pain
^ even negative stimuli may be experienced as rewarding in context of more negative stimuli
relief from pain is a ______ _____ experience
positive hedonic experience
lab study: relief from pain is a positive hedonic experience
lab study
Ps subjected to painful tasks (application of heat, skin irritant capsaicin)
when painful sensation is suddenly terminated, a sense of relief and positive affect results
the more intense the pain, the more intense the relief
opponent process model
emotional reactions are regulated by the brain to maintain hedonic balance
strong emotional reactions (pleasure and pain) are countered by an opposite reaction
opponent process mode: state a
- emotionally powerful stimulus > initial reaction (state a)
ie. scary scene > fear/anxiety
- adaptation phase > decline of state a
^ after the peak, the intensity of fear/anxiety GRADUALLY DECLINES and levels off
^ this happens because the brain begins to COUNTERACT the fear with an opposite emotional response
^ steady level of state A = state A - state B
adaptation phase
after the emotionally powerful stimulus and the initial reaction, there’s an ADAPTATION PHASE
this involves the DECLINE of state a
happens because the brain begins to COUNTERACT the emotion with an opposite emotional response
opponent process model: peak of state b
occurs after the stimulus ends
once the og stimulus is gone (ie. fear inducing one), the FULL FORCE OF RELEIF AND EXCITEMENT (state b) is felt
state b slowly fades until emotions return to baseline (zero)
state a explanation
- develops VERY QUICKLY
- closely associated with intensity of the stimulus that produced it
- CEASES when triggering stimulus is REMOVED
state b explanation
- develops SLOWLY (slower onset)
- produced as a REACTION to state a
- SLOWER to DECREASE (slower offset)
^ continues for some time after state a is removed
- BECOMES MORE INTENSE WITH REPEATED EXPERIENCE
state a versus b: which has a slower onset versus offset?
state b has a slower onset and offset
slow onset: because occurs as a response to state a
slow offset: lingers for some time after state a is removed
state b becomes more ________ with repeated experience
intense
because state a = a - b, repeated presentations of stimulus that triggered state a will lead in reduction in hedonic intensity of state a
^ the more exposure to state b, the less power state a has - because it’s being cancelled out by process b’s power
over time, behaviour comes to be more controlled by which process?
process b instead of process a
addiction: example of opponent process model
drug initially causes pleasure (state a)
over time, withdrawal (state b) grows stronger, leading individuals to continue drug use to avoid pain (not for pleasure anymore)
environmental cues can become conditioned to compensatory process; overdose risk is higher in new settings
love/attachment: example of opponent process model
when you’re first exposed to a romantic partner, sense of joy and euphoria
but there’s a process of pain associated with separation that actually increases over time
so maybe those feelings of euphoria aren’t as acute anymore, and anxiety about losing that person becomes more intense
thrill-seeking behaviours: example of opponent process model
beginners feel fear (state a) and relief after landing (state b)
repeated jumps REDUCE FEAR and AMPLIFY POST-JUMP EUPHORIA
pain relief: opponent process model
rapid offset of pain can feel pleasurable
helps explain why sometimes people seek out pain when theoretically they should avoid it
4 examples of the opponent-process model in real life
- addiction
- love/attraction
- thrill-seeking behaviours
- pain relief
peak-end rule
the most intense positive or negative moments (the PEAKS) and the final moments (the END) of the experience are MOST HEAVILY WEIGHTED in our recollections of the experience
peak-end rule study
pain study where Ps required to immerse one hand in cold water
- SHORT TRIAL: 14 degrees for 60 sec
- LONG TRIAL: 14 degrees for 60 sec and then 15 degrees for additional 30 sec
MOST CHOOSE TO REPEAT THE SECOND TRIAL
peak-end rule study takeaway
positive after-effects following an experience of pain/exertion may reshape our memory of the entire experience
the positive after-effect of the alleviation of pain is what we remember
3 other reasons we may seek out pain
- pain heightens sensory experience and awareness
- pain serves as a distraction from unwanted thoughts/feelings, and high levels of self-awareness
- pain may demonstrate virtue, affirm identity, and restore virtue/integrity when an individuals feels they’ve compromised their moral standing
pain heightens sensory experience and awareness…
one reason why people may seek out pain
after acute pain, individuals sometimes report greater enjoyment of PLEASANT STIMULI, like TASTY FOOD
ACC: overlap of pain and pleasure processing at neural level
reps the SIZE and PROBABILITY of rewards
along with EFFORTS to obtain them
INSULA: overlap of pain and pleasure processing at neural level
encodes TASTE and FOOD CRAVINGS
linked to FELT SATISFACTION during a task
more broadly involved in ENCODING INTEROCEPTIVE SIGNALS communicating internal body state
AMYGDALA: overlap of pain and pleasure processing at neural level
involved in both PAIN and THREAT processing
as well as REWARD
