March 17 Flashcards
optimism
generalized expectation that things will go well in the future
examples from scale measuring optimism
“in uncertain times, I usually expect the best”
“overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad”
optimism promotes ______ & _______ in the pursuit of goals
confidence
persistence
optimism predicts what in college freshmen?
better adjustment
- optimistic students = more likely to use ACTIVE COPING STRATEGIES (ie. problem solving, seeking support)
- they avoid passive coping (ie. ignoring problems)
^ this leads to LOWER STRESS and GREATER WELLBEING
optimism and mental/physical health
optimism predicts better mental and physical health across variety of domains
ie. workplace stress, recovery from serious illness
potential mechanisms by which optimism leads to better mental and physical health
- PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS: less chronic stress protects against long-term health risks like inflammation, cardiovascular disease, and immune system dysfunction
- BEHAVIOURAL MECHANISMS: fewer problematic behaviours, more health-promoting behaviours
expectancy-value theory
says motivation is determined by two key factors:
- VALUE OF THE GOAL: is this goal worth pursuing?
- EXPECTANCY OF SUCCESS: is this goal achievable?
according to expectancy-value theory, when are people most motivated?
- when they believe they can succeed (high expectancy)
- when they see the goal as meaningful or beneficial (high value)
optimism and success expectancy
optimism boosts expectancy of success
(expectancy-value theory)
optimism is related to _________ style
explanatory
explanatory style develops…
over time, based on experience
and is malleable
explanatory style of optimists
see setbacks as:
- temporary (UNSTABLE)
- limited to one area of life (SPECIFIC)
- due to external factors (EXTERNAL)
explanatory style of pessimists
see setbacks as…
- permanent (STABLE)
- affecting everything (GLOBAL)
- entirely their fault (INTERNAL)
explanatory style: what components are especially important for predicting positive outcomes?
- stability/instability
- specificity/globality
(opposite pattern for positive events - although attribution for negative events may be more important)
swimmer example: explanatory style
swimmers with pessimistic explanatory style more likely to underperform compared to optimistic swimmers
examined reactions to false negative feedback (a false slow time)
- optimistic swimmers maintained performance
- pessimistic swimmers performed worse on their next swim
how can you learn to think like an optimist?
- cognitive and cognitive behavioural therapy
- cognitive restructuring
cognitive and cognitive -behavioural therapy (learning to think like an optimist)
built on principle that BELIEFS about events, not the events themselves, cause negative emotional consequences
cognitive restructuring - (learning to think like an optimist)
helps individuals identify and challenge negative thought patterns
looking to reframe thinking to external, temporary and specific attributions (shifting explanatory style)
ie. “I’m just not smart enough, I’m always going to fail” —–> “that was a tough test, and I didn’t prepare well. but I’ll learn from tis and do better next time”
self-efficacy
belief that we can bring about desired outcomes
optimism versus self-efficacy
optimism is MORE GENERAL (“I believe that good things will happen”
self-efficacy is MORE SPECIFIC, emphasizes sense of CONTROL (“I believe that I can make good things happen”)
why is self-efficacy important?
- it shapes GOAL PURSUIT and determines ACTIVITY CHOICES
- promotes EFFORT and PERSISTENCE
- affects THINKING and FOCUS under PRESSURE
how does self-efficacy shape goal pursuit and determine activity choices?
when we feel capable, we seek out challenges; when we doubt ourselves, we avoid them
^ avoidance reinforces SELF-DOUBT
how does self-efficacy affect thinking?
stronger self efficacy beliefs promote LOGICAL THINKING
FOCUS
BETTER PERFORMANCE under pressure
4 sources of self-efficacy
- personal behaviour history
- vicarious experience
- verbal persuasion and encouragement
- interpretation of physiological state
personal behaviour history (source of self-efficacy)
“have I succeeded at this before?”
the more positive experiences we accumulate, the more confident we becomes
(this is why avoiding challenge is so detrimental - it prevents you from building self-efficacy)
vicarious experience (source of self-efficacy)
“have I seen someone like me succeed?”
watching experts is helpful, but seeing peers is even better (as they’re a better comparison point)
verbal persuasion and encouragement (source of self-efficacy)
must be realistic!!
from a coach or mentor
identify the intimidating part - model the needed skills - then provide feedback
break it down into parts, provide social modelling, and encourage
interpretation of physiological state (source of self-efficacy)
physiological states like heart rate, muscle tension all influence our beliefs about whether or not we’re likely to succeed
ie. I feel anxious about my presentation because my heart’s beating fast, versus I’m just excited
stressors
the events that are most likely to be stressful
perceived stress
a subjective evaluation of stress in response to events, depending on appraisal
what really matters is our interpretation of the events
this is why the same event is stressful for some and not for others
stress appraisal theory
appraisals of an event and our role in it shape our:
- EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE of the event
- PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS to the event
stress appraisal theory postulates that stress is…
stress is what happens when the demands of the situation exceed our ability to cope
two broad categories of stress appraisals
- primary appraisals
- secondary appraisals
these determine the degree to which we perceive an event to be stressful
primary appraisal
a person’s perception of the DEMANDS or CHALLENGES of a given situation
- is the event positive, negative or neutral?
- if negative, to what extent is it harmful, threatening for the future, or challenging?
secondary appraisal
a person’s perception of their ABILITY TO DEAL with the demands of a given situation
- are coping abilities and resources sufficient to deal with and overcome the harm, threat, or challenge posed by the event?
(once we have determined whether a situation merits a response, we think about if we have the resources needed to handle it)
stress appraisals for final exams: person A
PRIMARY APPRAISALS:
- event is NEGATIVE
- but it’s an opportunity to demonstrate how much I’ve learned to impress the prof (CHALLENGE)
- and if I don’t do well, it’s just one exam (LOW THREAT)
SECONDARY APPRAISALS:
- I’m good at this subject so I’ll be able to master the material
- I have plenty of time to study
- my friend who took this course last year can help me go over any material I don’t understand
stress appraisals for final exams: person B
PRIMARY APPRAISALS:
- event is NEGATIVE
- if I don’t do well on this exam, it will destroy my chances of getting into med school (HIGH THREAT)
SECONDARY APPRAISALS:
- I’m just no good at this subject
- I don’t have enough time to study
ultimately, the subjective experience of stress results from what?
from the BALANCING of primary and secondary appraisals
when is perceived stress high?
when the primary appraisal of the situation’s demands exceeds the secondary appraisal of your ability to meet those demands
ie. high harm/threat + low coping = substantial stress
challenge reactivity
a cardiovascular pattern of response whereby the heart PUMPS OUT MORE BLOOD and the vasculature DILATES
allows EFFICIENT CIRCULATION through the body (adaptive)
threat reactivity
a cardiovascular pattern of response whereby the heart PUMPS OUT MORE BLOOD but the vasculature CONSTRICTS
this PREVENTS EFFICIENT CIRCULATION through the body
are people high in self-efficacy more likely to make challenge or threat appraisals?
challenge appraisals
(pumps out more blood and vasculature dilates for more efficient circulation)
2 types of expectations
- efficacy expectation
- outcome expectation
efficacy expectation
“can I do it?”
do I have the skills, knowledge, resources etc to do something?
outcome expectation
“will it work?”
if I take action, will it actually lead to the result I want?
learned helplessness
state of PASSIVE RESIGNATION to an aversive situation that one has to believe is OUTSIDE ONE’S CONTROL
dog experiment GROUPS - learned helplessness
CONTROL GROUP: no shocks
ESCAPE GROUP: could terminate shock by pressing lever
NO ESCAPE GROUP: received shocks without any way to stop them
dog experiment RESULTS - learned helplessness
dogs who could CONTROL the shocks later LEARNED TO ESCAPE by jumping over a barrier in a new environment
dogs who had NO CONTROL before often DIDN’T ATTEMPT to escape, even when escape was easy
when does learned helplessness occur?
when REPEATED FAILURES lead people to believe they have NO CONTROL over their situation
undermines motivation, leading people to stop trying - even when success is possible
learned helplessness: repeated failure leads to…
repeated failure >
attribution to personal flaws & perception of no control >
loss of motivation
how to break the cycle of learned helplessness
- build small successes to restore self-efficacy
- recognize that past failure doesn’t mean future failure
- focus on controllable actions rather than global unchangeable beliefs
controllability and depression
controllability attributions are a strong PREDICTOR of depression
depression can be thought of as a state of despair and surrender of hope
controllability and depression: debate about…
debate about whether individuals wit depression UNDERESTIMATE controllability of events
maybe they’re actually MORE REALISTIC and those of us who aren’t depressed are overly optimistic
depressive realism
depressed people are more realistic
illusion of control exercised by non-depressed, more optimistic people
what is the antithesis/psychological opposite of depression?
hope
hope is more than just…
positive thinking or optimism
it combines MOTIVATION and STRATEGY to reach a goal
two components of hope
- agency
- pathways thinking
agency (in context of hope)
the belief that I can do something
determination and motivation to reach a goal
pathways thinking (in context of hope)
belief that I can find a way to make it happen
ability to generate different STRATEGIES and WORKAROUNDS for obstacles
while optimism has benefits, hope shows us that…
optimism alone isn’t enough
you have to be able to plan and strategize and figure out HOW to make things happen
problematic positive thinking - why is optimism a double-edged sword?
- safeguards wellbeing in a frightening world
- but can also lead us to underestimate risks, costs, and setbacks (planning fallacy)
optimism safeguards ______ in a frightening world
wellbeing
EVOLUTIONARY argument: optimism evolved to help protect us from the effects of a brain able to think about the future
optimism can lead us to underestimate what? and what is this called?
risks, costs and setbacks (planning fallacy)
tend to be particularly unrealistic when thinking about the future
ways in which we’re particularly unrealistic when thinking about the future
- greatly overestimate how much free time we’ll have
- underestimate how much time tasks will take
- the more distant the future, the more unrealistic our predictions
construal level theory
we tend to think about PSYCHOLOGICALLY DISTANT EVENTS in more ABSTRACT terms
and more PSYCHOLOGICALLY PROXIMAL EVENTS in more CONCRETE terms
(desirability versus feasibility information - explorer versus accountant thinking)
psychologically distant events (construal level theory)
focus is on DESIRABILITY information
“by taking this challenging course next year, I’ll become a smarter and better person”
psychologically proximate events (construal level theory)
focus is on FEASIBILITY information
“why did I sign up for this course this semester??? I don’t have the time to read complex texts in a new language”
3 ways to think about goals
- indulging
- dwelling
- mental contrasting
indulging
(1 of the three ways to think about goals)
only fantasizing about SUCCESS
ie. “I’m gonna crush this presentation”
dwelling
(1 of the three ways to think about goals)
only focusing on NEGATIVE ASPECTS of the current reality and RUMINATING on obstacles
ie. “I’m bad at public speaking)
mental contrasting
(1 of the three ways to think about goals)
STEP 1: IMAGINE achieving your goal
(ie. giving a great presentation)
STEP 2: identify OBSTACLES in your way
(ie. public speaking anxiety)
if success seems likely, you commit and take action
if success seems unlikely, you disengage and focus on a better goal
problem with indulging
it FEELS REWARDING but LOWERS MOTIVATION to actually prepare
why it doesn’t work: tricks your brain into thinking you’ve already succeeded
problem with dwelling
increases stress but doesn’t encourage action
why it doesn’t work: makes obstacles feel insurmountable, leading to avoidance
why does mental contrasting work?
fosters motivation by balancing optimism with realism
(if success seems likely, you commit and take action and if success seems unlikely, you disengage and focus on a better goal)
example: indulging vs dwelling vs mental contrasting
indulging:
“it’s going to go great!” > prepares a little, but doesn’t put in much effort
dwelling:
“what if I mess up?” > stresses out, but still doesn’t prepare as much as they should
mental contrasting:
“it will go great IF I prepare well and practice to manage my nerves” > creates a game plan, rehearses, and adjusts accordingly
first-year computer science STUDY SETUP
Ps: first year comp sci students
first, students rated ow likely they thought they were to excel in math
then, randomly assigned to one of three conditions:
- MENTAL CONTRASTING group (imagined success and obstacles)
- INDULGING group (only wrote about how great it would be to do well in math)
- DWELLING group (only focused on possibility of failure)
first-year computer science STUDY RESULTS
- students who practice MENTAL CONTRASTING showed the STRONGEST MOTIVATION and EFFORT
^ but ONLY if they had HIGH EXPECTATIONS of SUCCESS
^ for students with low expectations of success, mental contrasting actually decreased motivation and effort
- students in INDULGING and DWELLING conditions…
^ felt moderately energized
^ put in moderate effort
^ received average grades regardless of how high or low their expectations were
first year comp sci students who practiced mental contrasting and had high expectations of success did what?
- felt more energized
- studied harder
- earned highest grades
other life domains where mental contrasting works
- learning a foreign language
- cutting back on smoking
- maintaining healthy lifestyle
- managing chronic illneess
- forging interpersonal relationships
mental contrasting works by aligning what?
EFFORT with REALITY
- if success seems likely, it boosts motivation and effort
- if success seems unlikely, it decreases motivation and effort
mental contrasting helps to process and move past what thing?
regret
(past goals that went unachieved)
counterfactual thinking
“what could have been”
when people engage in counterfactual thinking, mental contrasting does what?
reduces disappointment, regret and resentment
reflecting on the obstacles that would’ve have to have been overcome can help people EMOTIONALLY DETACH from the unreachable goal and RE-ENGAGE/TAKE ACTION in the present
people who mentally contrasted past regrets became…
more ACTIVE and PRODUCTIVE in daily life
- RELATIONSHIPS: wrote more thoughtful get-well letters to friends
- CAREER: created higher-quality job applications
lecture key takeaways
- cultivate REALISTIC (rather than unrealistic) optimism
- use strategies we’ve discussed (implementation intentions) to overcome planning fallacy
- cultivate self-efficacy and hope
realistic optimism
based on belief that success comes from EFFORT, STRATEGY and PERSEVERANCE
(rather than luck or fixed traits)
the WOOP method
Wish
Outcome
Obstacle
Plan
WOOP - wish
choose and important and achievable goal
ie. exercise 3 times a week
WOOP - outcome
imagine how achieving the goal would positively impact your life
ie. will make me stronger
WOOP - obstacle
identify internal barriers that might derail your progress
ie. I always feel tired after work
WOOP - plan
develop a concrete if-then implementation plan to overcome the obstacle
ie. I’ll stretch and this will get me into the right mindset
